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''De re publica'' (''On the Commonwealth''; see
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) is a
dialogue Dialogue (sometimes spelled dialog in American and British English spelling differences, American English) is a written or spoken conversational exchange between two or more people, and a literature, literary and theatrical form that depicts suc ...
on Roman politics by
Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...
, written in six books between 54 and 51 BC. The work does not survive in a complete state, and large parts are missing. The surviving sections derive from excerpts preserved in later works and from an incomplete
palimpsest In textual studies, a palimpsest () is a manuscript page, either from a scroll or a book, from which the text has been scraped or washed off so that the page can be reused for another document. Parchment was made of lamb, calf, or kid skin an ...
uncovered in 1819. Cicero uses the work to explain Roman constitutional theory. Written in imitation of Plato's ''
Republic A republic () is a " state in which power rests with the people or their representatives; specifically a state without a monarchy" and also a "government, or system of government, of such a state." Previously, especially in the 17th and 18th ...
'', it takes the form of a
Socratic dialogue Socratic dialogue ( grc, Σωκρατικὸς λόγος) is a genre of literary prose developed in Greece at the turn of the fourth century BC. The earliest ones are preserved in the works of Plato and Xenophon and all involve Socrates as the p ...
in which
Scipio Aemilianus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus (185–129 BC), known as Scipio Aemilianus or Scipio Africanus the Younger, was a Roman general and statesman noted for his military exploits in the Third Punic War against Carthage and during the ...
takes the role of a wise old man. The work examines the type of government that had been established in Rome since the kings, and that was challenged by, amongst others,
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
. The development of the constitution is explained, and Cicero explores the different types of constitutions and the roles played by citizens in government. The work is also known for the ''
Dream of Scipio A dream is a succession of images, ideas, emotions, and sensations that usually occur involuntarily in the mind during certain stages of sleep. Humans spend about two hours dreaming per night, and each dream lasts around 5 to 20 minutes, althou ...
'', a fictional dream vision from the sixth book.


Title

While already the Latin version of the title of this work is given in two versions (''De re publica'' and ''De Republica''), depending on source, the translation of the title of this work show even more variants, often based on the choice of the translator: the expression " res publica" (which appears in the title of this work) is notoriously difficult to translate. Its modern English cognate,
republic A republic () is a " state in which power rests with the people or their representatives; specifically a state without a monarchy" and also a "government, or system of government, of such a state." Previously, especially in the 17th and 18th ...
, (also similar terms in many other languages) has acquired quite different connotations from the original Latin meaning (''res publica'' = most literally "the public matter"), rendering the term here problematic if not outright anachronistic in its implications. Because of the difficulties the title affords, there is no general consensus on how best to retain the sense of the Latin in translating the title. It is helpful to note that Cicero almost certainly had in mind the title of Plato's celebrated dialogue ''
Republic A republic () is a " state in which power rests with the people or their representatives; specifically a state without a monarchy" and also a "government, or system of government, of such a state." Previously, especially in the 17th and 18th ...
'' (
Greek Greek may refer to: Greece Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group. *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family. **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
: Πολιτεία, ''Politeia'') when naming his dialogue. While Plato's dialogue is often translated as ''Republic'', ''politeia'' translates more literally as "constitution," "regime," or "set-up," and the long tradition of calling the dialogue ''The Republic'' can be attributed to Cicero's own treatise and treatment in Latin.


Setting and dramatis personæ

''De re publica'' is in the format of a
Socratic dialogue Socratic dialogue ( grc, Σωκρατικὸς λόγος) is a genre of literary prose developed in Greece at the turn of the fourth century BC. The earliest ones are preserved in the works of Plato and Xenophon and all involve Socrates as the p ...
in which
Scipio Aemilianus Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus (185–129 BC), known as Scipio Aemilianus or Scipio Africanus the Younger, was a Roman general and statesman noted for his military exploits in the Third Punic War against Carthage and during the ...
(who had died over twenty years before Cicero was born, 270 years after
Socrates Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no t ...
' death) takes the role of a wise old man — a typical feature of the genre. Cicero's treatise was politically controversial: by choosing the format of a
philosophical Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. Some ...
dialogue he avoided naming his political adversaries directly. By employing various speakers to raise differing opinions, Cicero not only remained true to his favoured
sceptical Skepticism, also spelled scepticism, is a questioning attitude or doubt toward knowledge claims that are seen as mere belief or dogma. For example, if a person is skeptical about claims made by their government about an ongoing war then the ...
method of setting opposing arguments against one another (see, e.g.,
Carneades Carneades (; el, Καρνεάδης, ''Karneadēs'', "of Carnea"; 214/3–129/8 BC) was a Greek philosopher and perhaps the most prominent head of the Skeptical Academy in ancient Greece. He was born in Cyrene. By the year 159 BC, he had be ...
), but also made it more difficult for his adversaries to take him to task on what he had written.


Setting

The dialogue is portrayed as taking place in Scipio's estate, during three consecutive days. Each day is described in two books, with an introduction by Cicero preceding the dialogue of each book. A large part of the last book (the sixth) is taken by Scipio telling a dream he had: this passage is known as ''
Somnium Scipionis The ''Dream of Scipio'' (Latin: ''Somnium Scipionis''), written by Cicero, is the sixth book of ''De re publica'', and describes a (postulated fictional or real) dream vision of the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus, set two years before he overs ...
'', or "Scipio's dream".


Participants

In alphabetical order: * Fannius, Gaius:
Consul Consul (abbrev. ''cos.''; Latin plural ''consules'') was the title of one of the two chief magistrates of the Roman Republic, and subsequently also an important title under the Roman Empire. The title was used in other European city-states throu ...
in 122 BC. Follower of
Stoicism Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy founded by Zeno of Citium in Athens in the early 3rd century BCE. It is a philosophy of personal virtue ethics informed by its system of logic and its views on the natural world, asserting tha ...
,
historian A historian is a person who studies and writes about the past and is regarded as an authority on it. Historians are concerned with the continuous, methodical narrative and research of past events as relating to the human race; as well as the st ...
and
orator An orator, or oratist, is a public speaker, especially one who is eloquent or skilled. Etymology Recorded in English c. 1374, with a meaning of "one who pleads or argues for a cause", from Anglo-French ''oratour'', Old French ''orateur'' (14th ...
. Son-in-law to Laelius. * Laelius, Gaius: Close friend and associate of Scipio, Consul in 140 BC, promoter of the study of
literature Literature is any collection of Writing, written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially prose fiction, drama, and poetry. In recent centuries, the definition has expanded to ...
and
Philosophy Philosophy (from , ) is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language. Such questions are often posed as problems to be studied or resolved. ...
. * Manilius, Manius: Consul in 149 BC. Historian and
legal scholar Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90. with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been vario ...
. * Mucius Scaevola, Quintus: Legal scholar and
patron Patronage is the support, encouragement, privilege, or financial aid that an organization or individual bestows on another. In the history of art, arts patronage refers to the support that kings, popes, and the wealthy have provided to artists su ...
of the young Cicero. Son-in-law to Laelius. * Mummius, Spurius:
Satirist This is an incomplete list of writers, cartoonists and others known for involvement in satire – humorous social criticism. They are grouped by era and listed by year of birth. Included is a list of modern satires. Under Contemporary, 1930-196 ...
and extreme defender of optimate interests. Brother of
Lucius Mummius Lucius Mummius (2nd century BC), was a Roman statesman and general. He was consul in the year 146 BC along with Scipio Aemilianus. Mummius was the first of his family to rise to the rank of consul thereby making him a novus homo. He received the ...
. * Philus, Lucius Furius: Consul 136 BC, orator * Rutilius Rufus, Publius:
Politician A politician is a person active in party politics, or a person holding or seeking an elected office in government. Politicians propose, support, reject and create laws that govern the land and by an extension of its people. Broadly speaking, ...
admired for his honesty, dedicated to Stoicism. * Scipio Aemilianus Africanus, P. Cornelius: Famous military and political leader 149–129 BC. Captured and destroyed
Carthage Carthage was the capital city of Ancient Carthage, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classi ...
in 146 BC. Restored order after assassination of
Tiberius Gracchus Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus ( 163 – 133 BC) was a Roman politician best known for his agrarian reform law entailing the transfer of land from the Roman state and wealthy landowners to poorer citizens. He had also served in the Roma ...
in 133 BC and mediated between the political factions. Died suddenly and mysteriously in 129 BC. * Tubero, Quintus Aelius: Scipio's nephew, tribune c. 129 BC. Legal scholar dedicated to Stoicism. As a letter to his brother Quintus (dated to November 54 BC) shows, Cicero very nearly redrafted the entire work so as to replace these characters with himself and his friends. Cicero showed an early draft of the treatise to a friend named Sallustius. However, Sallustius immediately recommended that Cicero redesign the work in order to set it in his own day, and substitute Cicero himself for Scipio Aemilianus: 'for he pointed out that these matters could be treated with much more authority if I spoke of the Republic in my own person'. Cicero was convinced by Sallustius' arguments, and he makes clear in the letter to Quintus that he intended to carry out this redraft. However, he must have changed his mind soon after, as the treatise as it survives is still set in Scipio Aemilianus' time.


Content

Apart from the Greek philosophers mentioned above,
Polybius Polybius (; grc-gre, Πολύβιος, ; ) was a Greek historian of the Hellenistic period. He is noted for his work , which covered the period of 264–146 BC and the Punic Wars in detail. Polybius is important for his analysis of the mixed ...
was also an important source of inspiration for Cicero's political views. Since not all of the work survives, some of the content is surmised from references by other ancient authors. Book One: Contains a discussion between the protagonists of the political situation of their time. The theme of the work is given and some comments are made about the theory of
constitutions A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed. When these prin ...
. Book Two: An outline of
Roman history The history of Rome includes the history of the city of Rome as well as the civilisation of ancient Rome. Roman history has been influential on the modern world, especially in the history of the Catholic Church, and Roman law has influenced m ...
and the development of the
constitution A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed. When these pr ...
. Book Three: The role of justice in
government A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state. In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. Government i ...
is examined, as are the different types of
constitutions A constitution is the aggregate of fundamental principles or established precedents that constitute the legal basis of a polity, organisation or other type of entity and commonly determine how that entity is to be governed. When these prin ...
. Book Four: A discourse about
education Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honesty ...
. Book Five: The characters converse about the qualities of the ideal
citizen Citizenship is a "relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection". Each state determines the conditions under which it will recognize persons as its citizens, and ...
in
government A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state. In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. Government i ...
. Book Six: Little of this book survives except the ''
Somnium Scipionis The ''Dream of Scipio'' (Latin: ''Somnium Scipionis''), written by Cicero, is the sixth book of ''De re publica'', and describes a (postulated fictional or real) dream vision of the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus, set two years before he overs ...
'', which functions as the conclusion to the work.


Style

Cicero carefully edited ''De re publica'' in order to achieve exalted style.Albrecht, M. ''Cicero's Style: a synopsis'', Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2003. P. 31. Cicero used several archaic expressions in the treatise, even though he hadn't supported an archaistic movement in Latin literature. The causes were the setting of ''De re publica'' in the past and discussion of historical and legal matters. His later works contain fewer archaic words, but more neologisms. Archaistic words in ''De re publica'' are distributed irregularly. Among the surviving volumes, the frequency of outmoded words in Book II devoted to historical matters is two times higher compared to Book I where theoretical issues are discussed. Cicero tried to emulate speech of the dialogue's participants by reconstructing several aspects of spoken language of the Scipionic age. The treatise has other stylistic features: a large number of
antitheses Antithesis (Greek for "setting opposite", from "against" and "placing") is used in writing or speech either as a proposition that contrasts with or reverses some previously mentioned proposition, or when two opposites are introduced together f ...
compared to other philosophical works and elements of archaic grammar, still in use in official language, but completely outmoded in public speeches.Albrecht, M. ''Cicero's Style: a synopsis'', Leiden; Boston: Brill, 2003. P. 42.


History of the text

Large parts of the text are missing: especially from the 4th and the 5th book only minor fragments survived. All other books have at least some passages missing. ''
Scipio's dream The ''Dream of Scipio'' (Latin: ''Somnium Scipionis''), written by Cicero, is the sixth book of ''De re publica'', and describes a (postulated fictional or real) dream vision of the Roman general Scipio Aemilianus, set two years before he overs ...
'', which is only a part from the 6th book, is nearly all that survives from that book. The ''Somnium Scipionis'', as it is known, survives because it was the subject of a commentary by
Macrobius Macrobius Ambrosius Theodosius, usually referred to as Macrobius (fl. AD 400), was a Roman provincial who lived during the early fifth century, during late antiquity, the period of time corresponding to the Later Roman Empire, and when Latin was ...
, who excerpted large portions; both he and his readers in the Middle Ages and Renaissance were mainly interested in its discussion of astrology and astronomy, especially given the loss of the rest of the book. An enterprising copyist early in the textual tradition appended a copy of the ''Somnium'' to a copy of Macrobius's Commentary, but this copy appears to be inferior to the one Macrobius was reading. This text became so popular that its transmission was polluted by multiple copies; it has been impossible to establish a stemma for it. The largest part of the surviving text was uncovered as a
palimpsest In textual studies, a palimpsest () is a manuscript page, either from a scroll or a book, from which the text has been scraped or washed off so that the page can be reused for another document. Parchment was made of lamb, calf, or kid skin an ...
in 1819 in a Vatican Library manuscript (Vat Lat 5757) of a work by Augustine and published in 1822. Before that date ''Scipio's dream'' was the only larger excerpt of the text that was known to have survived the
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire ...
. The other fragments are mainly quotes found in the work of other authors (for example
Augustine Augustine of Hippo ( , ; la, Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as Saint Augustine, was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Afr ...
and
Nonius Marcellus Nonius Marcellus was a Roman grammarian of the 4th or 5th century AD. His only surviving work is the ''De compendiosa doctrina'', a dictionary or encyclopedia in 20 books that shows his interests in antiquarianism and Latin literature from Plautu ...
). Through these other authors' discussion of Cicero's treatise, the main topics of each book can be surmised. The discovery in 1819 by Cardinal
Angelo Mai Angelo Mai (''Latin'' Angelus Maius; 7 March 17828 September 1854) was an Italian Cardinal and philologist. He won a European reputation for publishing for the first time a series of previously unknown ancient texts. These he was able to discove ...
was one of the first major recoveries of an ancient text from a palimpsest, and although Mai's techniques were crude by comparison with later scholars', his discovery of ''De Republica'' heralded a new era of rediscovery and inspired him and other scholars of his time to seek more palimpsests. A copy was published in the 19th century by the Vatican library, and a transcript is available in the 1908 Supplementary Proceedings of the American School of Rome. Uncertainty continues over several corruptions in the text that affect key data, such as the structure and size of the Comitia Centuriata in early Rome as described by Scipio in Book II. Another key area of debate is the one corrective hand present in Vat Lat 5757; some scholars believe the corrective hand was a more skilled copyist, perhaps a supervisor, who had access to the same text as the copyist and was correcting the first work; others have concluded that the corrective hand had access to a different version of the text. It is worth noting that in one letter to his friend Atticus, Cicero asks him to make a correction to the copy of ''De Republica'' Cicero has sent him. This correction is not present in the Vat Lat 5757 version of the text.


Quotes

* This excessive liberty soon brings the people, collectively and individually, to an excessive servitude. ( la, Nimiaque illa libertas et populis et privatis in nimiam servitutem cadit) (I, 68)


Text and translations


Text

* ''Cicero: On Friendship and The Dream of Scipio'' by J. Powell (1990) Wiltshire: Aris & Phillips Ltd * ''Cicero: De Re Publica'' ed. J. E. G. Zetzel (1995) Cambridge: Cambridge UP * ''Cicero: On the Commonwealth and On the Laws'' ed. and trans. J. E. G. Zetzel (1999) Cambridge: Cambridge UP * ''Cicero: The Republic and The Laws'' ed. and trans. N. Rudd (1998) New York: Oxford UP


Translations

*''Republic'' - a translation neglecting the first word of the Latin title (''De''), which is the equivalent of ''On'' or ''Of''; other translations of the title include ''On the republic'' or ''Treatise on the republic''. *Although "republic" can appear a neutral translation of "res publica", it is infected by the many interpretations given to the word ''republic'' afterwards, as mentioned above. So, the translation of "Res publica" (literally ''the "public thing"'' or ''the public cause'') has many variants: ** Sometimes "Res publica" is translated into
Commonwealth A commonwealth is a traditional English term for a political community founded for the common good. Historically, it has been synonymous with "republic". The noun "commonwealth", meaning "public welfare, general good or advantage", dates from the ...
, hence ''Treatise on the Commonwealth'' is a possible translation of the title (the major translation by G.H. Sabine & S.B. Smith, 1929, is, thus, ''On the Commonwealth''). ** ''On Government'' or ''On the State'' – Cicero's intention was however probably more specific, the type of government that had been established in Rome since the kings, and that was challenged by amongst others
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, an ...
, by the time Cicero wrote his ''De re publica''. (see:
Roman Republic The Roman Republic ( la, Res publica Romana ) was a form of government of Rome and the era of the classical Roman civilization when it was run through public representation of the Roman people. Beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Ki ...
)


References


Bibliography

* Fott, David, ''Marcus Tullius Cicero: On the Republic and On the Laws'' (''Agora Editions''), Cornell University Press (December 19, 2013). * How, W. W. (1930) "Cicero's Ideal in his ''De re publica''". Journal of Roman Studies, 20: 24–42. * Keyes, C. W. (1921) "Original Elements in Cicero's Ideal Constitution". American Journal of Philology 42: 309–323. * Powell, J. G. F. (1994) "The ''rector rei publicae'' of Cicero's ''De Republica''". ''Scripta Classica Israelica'' 13: 19–29. * * Wood, N. ''Cicero's Social and Political Thought.'' (1988) Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press. * Hamza, G. ''Il potere (lo Stato) nel pensiero di Cicerone e la sua attualità.'' Revista Internacional de Derecho Romano (RIDROM) 10 (2013) 1-25. http://www.ridrom.uclm.es


External links

* *
Project Gutenberg Project Gutenberg (PG) is a volunteer effort to digitize and archive cultural works, as well as to "encourage the creation and distribution of eBooks." It was founded in 1971 by American writer Michael S. Hart and is the oldest digital libr ...
: ''On the Commonwealth'' is contained in C. D. Yonge'
literal translation of three philosophical works by Cicero, with notes and some quotes in Latin
at ''attalus.org''
Latin original
at
The Latin Library The Latin Library is a website that collects public domain Latin texts. It is run by William L. Carey, adjunct professor of Latin and Roman Law at George Mason University. The texts have been drawn from different sources, are not intended for ...
{{Authority control 1st-century BC Latin books Books in political philosophy Philosophical works by Cicero Roman Republic Socratic dialogues Political thought in ancient Rome Manuscripts of the Vatican Library