Etymology and meaning
''Duḥkha'' (Sanskrit: दुःख; Pali: ''dukkha'') is a term found in the Upanishads and Buddhist texts, meaning anything that is "uneasy, uncomfortable, unpleasant, difficult, causing pain or sadness". It is also a concept in Indian religions about the nature of transient phenomena which are innately "unpleasant", "suffering", "pain", "sorrow", "distress", "grief" or "misery". The term ''duḥkha'' does not have a one-word English translation, and embodies diverse aspects of unpleasant human experiences. It is often understood as the opposite of '' sukha'', meaning lasting "happiness," "comfort" or "ease".Etymology
Axle hole
The word has been explained in recent times as a derivation from Aryan terminology for an axle hole, referring to an axle hole which is not in the center and leads to a bumpy, uncomfortable ride. According to Winthrop Sargeant, Joseph Goldstein, American vipassana teacher and writer, explains the etymology as follows:'Standing unstable'
However, according to Monier Monier-Williams, the actual roots of theTranslation
The literal meaning of ''duḥkha'', as used in a general sense is "suffering" or "painful." Its exact translation depends on the context. Contemporary translators of Buddhist texts use a variety of English words to convey the aspects of ''dukh''. Early Western translators of Buddhist texts (before the 1970s) typically translated the Pali term ''dukkha'' as "suffering." Later translators have emphasized that "suffering" is a too limited translation for the term duḥkha, and have preferred to either leave the term untranslated, or to clarify that translation with terms such as anxiety, distress, frustration, unease, unsatisfactoriness, not having what one wants, having what one doesn't want, etc. In the sequence "birth is painful," ''dukhka'' may be translated as "painful." When related to vedana, "feeling," ''dukkha'' ("unpleasant," "painful") is the opposite of ''sukkha'' ("pleasure," "pleasant"), yet all feelings are ''dukkha'' in that they are impermanent, conditioned phenomena, which are unsatisfactory, incapable of providing lasting satisfaction. The term "unsatisfactoriness" then is often used to emphasize the unsatisfactoriness of "life under the influence of afflictions and polluted karma."Buddhism
Early Buddhism
''Duḥkha'' is one of the three marks of existence, namely '' anitya'' ("impermanent"), ''duḥkha'' ("unsatisfactory"), '' anatman'' (without a lasting essence). Various sutras sum up how cognitive processes result in an aversion to unpleasant things and experiences (''duḥkha''), forming a corrupted process together with the complementary process of clinging to and craving for pleasure (''suhkha''). This is expressed as '' saṃsāra'', an ongoing process of death and rebirth, but also more pointly and non-metaphysically in the process-formula of the five skandhas: # Birth is duḥkha, maturation is duḥkha, aging is duḥkha, illness is duḥkha,Chinese Buddhism
Chinese Buddhist tradition has been influenced by Taoism and Confucian theory that advocates that duhkha (古:十Ten directions, 口 hole or opening) is associated to the theory of seven emotions of endogenous disease through the formation of the spirit of the po a term that relates to the Western psychological notion of ego or the theological reference to the human soul. This theory is expounded in the application of traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment and prevention of pain and suffering from illness, disease and ignorance.Literal suffering and awakening
Awakening, that is, awakening to one's true mind of emptiness and compassion, does not necessarily end physical suffering. In the Buddhist tradition, suffering after awakening is often explained as the working-out or untangling of karma of one's previous present life.Hinduism
In Hinduism, ''duḥkha'' encompasses many meanings such as the phenomenological senses of pain and grief, a deep-seated dissatisfaction with the limitations of worldly existence, and the devastation of impermanence. In Hindu scriptures, the earliest Upaniads — the and the — in all likelihood predate the advent of Buddhism. In these scriptures of Hinduism, the Sanskrit word ''dukha'' (दुःख) appears in the sense of "suffering, sorrow, distress", and in the context of a spiritual pursuit and liberation through the knowledge of Atman ('essence'). The concept of sorrow and suffering, and self-knowledge as a means to overcome it, appears extensively with other terms in the pre-Buddhist Upanishads. The term ''Duhkha'' also appears in many other middle and later post-Buddhist Upanishads such as the verse 6.20 of Shvetashvatara Upanishad, as well as in the Bhagavad Gita, all in the contexts of moksha and bhakti. The term also appears in the foundational Sutras of the six schools of Hindu philosophy, such as the opening lines of ''Samkhya karika'' of the Samkhya school.Samkhya karikaJainism
''Duḥkha'' is explained in the Tattvartha Sutra, an authoritative Jain scripture from the 2nd century.See also
* Existential despair * Four Noble Truths * Nirodha *Notes
References
Sources
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