Durham White Stevens (February 1, 1851 – March 25, 1908) was an American diplomat and later an employee of Japan's
Ministry of Foreign Affairs In many countries, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs is the government department responsible for the state's diplomacy, bilateral, and multilateral relations affairs as well as for providing support for a country's citizens who are abroad. The entit ...
, working for the Japanese colonial office in
Korea
Korea ( ko, 한국, or , ) is a peninsular region in East Asia. Since 1945, it has been divided at or near the 38th parallel, with North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea) comprising its northern half and South Korea (Republic o ...
, the
Resident-General
A resident minister, or resident for short, is a government official required to take up permanent residence in another country. A representative of his government, he officially has diplomatic functions which are often seen as a form of indir ...
. He was fatally shot by
Korean-American
Korean Americans are Americans of Korean ancestry (mostly from South Korea). In 2015, the Korean-American community constituted about 0.56% of the United States population, or about 1.82 million people, and was the fifth-largest Asian Americans ...
activists
Jang In-hwan and
Jeon Myeong-un in one of the first acts of nationalist rebellion by pro-Korean activists in the United States.
Stevens' assassination took place at the same time as numerous other pro-Korean demonstrations, largely as a reaction to the
1905 treaty that established Korea as a colony of Japan.
Itō Hirobumi
was a Japanese politician and statesman who served as the first Prime Minister of Japan. He was also a leading member of the ''genrō'', a group of senior statesmen that dictated Japanese policy during the Meiji era.
A London-educated samur ...
(the Japanese Resident-General) was also assassinated, crowds in Korea attacked and burned down a pro-Japanese newspaper office, and crowds also clashed with Japanese guards at the
Gyeongbokgung Palace
Gyeongbokgung (), also known as Gyeongbokgung Palace or Gyeongbok Palace, was the main royal palace of the Joseon dynasty. Built in 1395, it is located in northern Seoul, South Korea. The largest of the ''Five Grand Palaces'' built by the Joseon ...
.
Early life
Stevens was born and grew up in
Washington, D.C.
)
, image_skyline =
, image_caption = Clockwise from top left: the Washington Monument and Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall, United States Capitol, Logan Circle, Jefferson Memorial, White House, Adams Morgan, ...
He enrolled as an undergraduate at
Ohio
Ohio () is a state in the Midwestern region of the United States. Of the fifty U.S. states, it is the 34th-largest by area, and with a population of nearly 11.8 million, is the seventh-most populous and tenth-most densely populated. The sta ...
's
Oberlin College
Oberlin College is a Private university, private Liberal arts colleges in the United States, liberal arts college and conservatory of music in Oberlin, Ohio. It is the oldest Mixed-sex education, coeducational liberal arts college in the United S ...
, from which he graduated in 1871.
Career
Stevens returned to his hometown to study law at
Columbian University
, mottoeng = "God is Our Trust"
, established =
, type = Private federally chartered research university
, academic_affiliations =
, endowment = $2.8 billion (2022)
, presid ...
and
Howard University
Howard University (Howard) is a private, federally chartered historically black research university in Washington, D.C. It is classified among "R2: Doctoral Universities – High research activity" and accredited by the Middle States Commissi ...
, and was admitted to the
bar association
A bar association is a professional association of lawyers as generally organized in countries following the Anglo-American types of jurisprudence. The word bar is derived from the old English/European custom of using a physical railing to separ ...
of the District of Columbia in 1873 in a class with Joseph E. Lee,
Jacksonville, Florida
Jacksonville is a city located on the Atlantic coast of northeast Florida, the most populous city proper in the state and is the largest city by area in the contiguous United States as of 2020. It is the seat of Duval County, with which the ...
's first black lawyer, Henry Wagner, US Consul at
Lyons, France
Lyon,, ; Occitan: ''Lion'', hist. ''Lionés'' also spelled in English as Lyons, is the third-largest city and second-largest metropolitan area of France. It is located at the confluence of the rivers Rhône and Saône, to the northwest of th ...
,
William E. Matthews,
John S. Leary
John S. Leary (August 17, 1845 – December 9, 1904) was an American lawyer and politician. He was of mixed ethnicity. He is described as one of the first black lawyers in North Carolina and was a member of the North Carolina State Legislature, ...
, J. H. Smith, and John A. Moss. His career with the
Department of State
The United States Department of State (DOS), or State Department, is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the country's foreign policy and relations. Equivalent to the ministry of foreign affairs of other nati ...
began in October of that same year, when President
Ulysses S. Grant
Ulysses S. Grant (born Hiram Ulysses Grant ; April 27, 1822July 23, 1885) was an American military officer and politician who served as the 18th president of the United States from 1869 to 1877. As Commanding General, he led the Union Ar ...
appointed him secretary of the United States Legation at
Tokyo
Tokyo (; ja, 東京, , ), officially the Tokyo Metropolis ( ja, 東京都, label=none, ), is the capital and largest city of Japan. Formerly known as Edo, its metropolitan area () is the most populous in the world, with an estimated 37.468 ...
, where he served under
John Bingham
John Armor Bingham (January 21, 1815 – March 19, 1900) was an American politician who served as a Republican representative from Ohio and as the United States ambassador to Japan. In his time as a congressman, Bingham served as both assist ...
, then United States Minister to Japan.
Bingham had known Stevens's father, E. L. Stevens, who had also graduated from Oberlin like his son and had been involved in anti-slavery activities since the 1830s, a passion Bingham shared. He enthusiastically accepted his new position, in part due to his fondness for learning new languages; he had previously studied Latin, Greek, French, and German. He was initially one of only three staff members at the Legation. He served as secretary until July 1883, and also took up the post of chargé d'affaires ad interim in 1878–79, while Bingham was on home leave. After resigning his post, he returned to the United States.
Working for the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs
In November 1883, Stevens entered the service of the Japanese Government as English Secretary to the Imperial Legation at Washington, a position which he obtained thanks to the influence his former superior Bingham had with the Japanese government. In 1884 he was ordered to Tokyo for service in the Foreign Office. In the winter of 1884–85 he accompanied Count
Inoue Kaoru
Marquess Inoue Kaoru (井上 馨, January 16, 1836 – September 1, 1915) was a Japanese politician and a prominent member of the Meiji oligarchy during the Meiji period of the Empire of Japan. As one of the senior statesmen (''Genrō'') in Jap ...
to Korea to assist in negotiations related to the murder of several Japanese citizens on Korean soil; for services rendered on that occasion,
Emperor Meiji
, also called or , was the 122nd emperor of Japan according to the traditional order of succession. Reigning from 13 February 1867 to his death, he was the first monarch of the Empire of Japan and presided over the Meiji era. He was the figur ...
awarded him the
Third Class of the Order of the Rising Sun.
He served as Bureau du Protocole at an 1885–1887 Tokyo conference aimed at the renegotiation of
unequal treaties
Unequal treaty is the name given by the Chinese to a series of treaties signed during the 19th and early 20th centuries, between China (mostly referring to the Qing dynasty) and various Western powers (specifically the British Empire, France, the ...
imposed on Japan by Western countries; following the conference, he returned to Washington, D.C. with the rank of Honorary Counsellor of Legation. He served under Count
Mutsu Munemitsu
Count was a Japanese statesman and diplomat in Meiji period Japan.
Early life
Mutsu Munemitsu was born in Wakayama domain, Kii Province as the sixth son of Date Munehiro, a ''samurai'' retainer of the Kii Tokugawa clan. His father was activ ...
, then Minister at Washington; during that time, he assisted in the negotiation of the treaty with Mexico, which was the first treaty made by Japan fully recognizing her right to exercise all the sovereign powers of an independent state.
Soon after the start of hostilities in the
First Sino-Japanese War
The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a conflict between China and Japan primarily over influence in Korea. After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the po ...
, Stevens published an article in the ''
North American Review
The ''North American Review'' (NAR) was the first literary magazine in the United States. It was founded in Boston in 1815 by journalist Nathan Hale and others. It was published continuously until 1940, after which it was inactive until revived a ...
'', in which he sought to justify the war by asserting that the "dry rot of Chinese conservatism" blocked Korea's development, and that a reduction of Chinese influence in Korea and a corresponding increase in Japanese power would result in social and commercial reform. For services rendered during the war, he received the Second Class of the
Order of the Sacred Treasure
The is a Japanese order, established on 4 January 1888 by Emperor Meiji as the Order of Meiji. Originally awarded in eight classes (from 8th to 1st, in ascending order of importance), since 2003 it has been awarded in six classes, the lowest ...
. He travelled twice to
Hawaii
Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only stat ...
to represent Japanese interests there, once in 1901 and again in 1902. He was also decorated two more times by the Japanese government, the third time receiving the Second Class of the Order of the Rising Sun, and then in October 1904, the fourth time, being awarded the Grand Cross of the Sacred Treasure.
Adviser to the Korean government
In November 1904, Stevens was appointed as adviser to the Korean Foreign Office.
The Japanese government had urged the Korean government to appoint him to this position on the basis of the 1901 recommendation of
Horace Allen. Stevens ignored several requests that a Korean consul be appointed in Hawaii; despite this, in 1905, Allen also commended Stevens to
F. M. Swanzy, president of the
Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association
Founded in 1895, the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association (HSPA) was an unincorporated, voluntary organization of sugarcane plantation owners in the Hawaiian Islands. Its objective was to promote the mutual benefits of its members and the developme ...
; Swanzy was interested in seeing Korean emigration to
Hawaii
Hawaii ( ; haw, Hawaii or ) is a state in the Western United States, located in the Pacific Ocean about from the U.S. mainland. It is the only U.S. state outside North America, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only stat ...
resumed. The Japanese government expected that Stevens supported their efforts to block Korean emigration to Hawaii, but he was initially open to the idea. He had several meetings with Swanzy in Tokyo in mid-1905 on the subject, but in the end, Swanzy's efforts were unsuccessful. Later that year, he issued a statement that Japan would welcome legislation restricting the entry of Japanese immigrants into the United States, and that they were also in favor of stopping movement to Hawaii, "provided it can be done in a manner that would not be offensive to Japan or that would not affect her dignity"; he stated that the Japanese government hoped to induce potential emigrants to settle in Korea or
northeast China
Northeast China or Northeastern China () is a geographical region of China, which is often referred to as "Manchuria" or "Inner Manchuria" by surrounding countries and the West. It usually corresponds specifically to the three provinces east of t ...
instead. While officially under the employ of the Joseon government, he purportedly continued to receive tens of thousands of dollars in payments from the Japanese in order to "advance Japanese propaganda" among the American people, according to South Korea's
Ministry of Patriots' and Veterans' Affairs
The Ministry of Patriots and Veterans Affairs (MPVA; ; Hanja: 國家報勳處) is a ministry under the Government of South Korea which handles veterans. It was established in August 1961 as the Soldiers' Affairs Agency.
List of Ministers
Timel ...
.
In early 1906, Stevens made a bet with
Kiuchi Jūshirō
was a Japanese politician. He was educated at Chiba Middle School and Chiba First High School, and later graduated from Imperial Tokyo University's Department of Political Science.Ichikawa City In 1906, while serving as a Japanese representa ...
, a Japanese official resident in Korea, about the length of time before Japan would annex Korea. Kiuchi expected it would only take three years; Stevens's guess of five years would prove to be more nearly correct, as the
Japan-Korea Annexation Treaty was signed in mid-1910. However, Stevens would not survive to see his prediction come true.
Assassination
Stevens returned to the United States in March 1908 to visit his family in Washington, D.C., and vacation with his sisters at a cottage they owned in
Atlantic City
Atlantic City, often known by its initials A.C., is a coastal resort city in Atlantic County, New Jersey, United States. The city is known for its casinos, Boardwalk (entertainment district), boardwalk, and beaches. In 2020 United States censu ...
,
New Jersey
New Jersey is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States. It is bordered on the north and east by the state of New York; on the east, southeast, and south by the Atlantic Ocean; on the west by the Delaware ...
.
Upon his arrival, he gave an interview with a San Francisco newspaper in which he stated that the common people of Korea were benefiting from the increasing Japanese presence and protection in their country, and that, in the state that Korea was in, Korea was not fit to be a liberated country. These statements provoked the ire of two local associations of Koreans, the ''Daedong Bogukhoe'' and the
Independence Club
The Independence Association (독립협회, 獨立協會) was founded through the initiative of Philip Jaisohn (Seo Jae-pil) on July 2, 1896. At its founding it was recognized by the Korean Ministry of Foreign Affairs.
Despite some remarkable ach ...
, who held a joint meeting in which they agreed that something had to be done about Stevens.
On March 22, 1908, four Korean men chosen by the associations accosted Stevens at the
Fairmont Hotel, where he was staying. Their leader, a man by the name of Earl Lee who was described as fluent in English, asked him if he had indeed made the statements attributed to him in the newspaper, and whether "Japanese were not killing off the Koreans". He answered yes to the first question and no to the second, then proceeded to tell Lee that he had "probably been too long away from his country to know the exact condition of the Government."
Upon this, the four men began to strike Stevens with chairs, knocking him down and causing him to strike his head against the marble flooring; Stevens backed up against the wall until help arrived. After the assault, Lee was quoted as saying, "We are all very sorry that we did not do more to him."
The following day,
Jang In-hwan and
Jeon Myeong-un, both
Korean immigrants to the United States, approached Stevens at the
Port of San Francisco
The Port of San Francisco is a semi-independent organization that oversees the port facilities at San Francisco, California, United States. It is run by a five-member commission, appointed by the Mayor and approved by the Board of Supervisors. Th ...
as he prepared to catch a ferry to make a rail connection in
Oakland
Oakland is the largest city and the county seat of Alameda County, California, United States. A major West Coast port, Oakland is the largest city in the East Bay region of the San Francisco Bay Area, the third largest city overall in the Bay A ...
and attacked him. Jeon fired his
revolver
A revolver (also called a wheel gun) is a repeating handgun that has at least one barrel and uses a revolving cylinder containing multiple chambers (each holding a single cartridge) for firing. Because most revolver models hold up to six roun ...
at Stevens first, but missed, and instead rushed at him, using his weapon
as a club to hit Stevens in the face. However, Jeon was quickly subdued by Stevens. Jang, who was also seeking to assassinate Stevens, saw the fight and then fired into the melee, striking Stevens twice in the back; Jeon was also shot in the confusion. The crowd which had gathered urged that they be
lynched
Lynching is an extrajudicial killing by a group. It is most often used to characterize informal public executions by a mob in order to punish an alleged transgressor, punish a convicted transgressor, or intimidate people. It can also be an ex ...
on the spot; Jang was arrested and held without bail on a charge of murder, while Jeon was first hospitalized, and later charged as an
accessory. In newspaper interviews after the attack, both Jeon and Jang offered no apology for the assassination, describing Stevens as a "traitor to Korea" and stating that "thousands of people have been killed through his plans".
One bullet had penetrated Stevens's lung, while another lodged in his groin; however, surgeons at the St. Francis Hospital initially expected that he would be able to make a recovery, and on the day of the attack he was apparently in good enough health to issue a statement to the press that the assault was "evidently the work of a small band of student agitators in and about San Francisco, who resent the fact that the Japanese have a protectorate over Korea and believe that I am to some extent responsible for this condition of affairs in their country".
However, his condition began to deteriorate on the morning of March 25. His doctors, seeing signs of inflammation in his wounds, placed him under anesthesia and began to perform surgery at six that evening. He never regained consciousness after that, and died shortly after 11 pm, with Japanese Consul
Chozo Koike at his bedside.
He was buried in his hometown of Washington, D.C. after a funeral service at
St. John's Episcopal Church;
Secretary of State Elihu Root
Elihu Root (; February 15, 1845February 7, 1937) was an American lawyer, Republican politician, and statesman who served as Secretary of State and Secretary of War in the early twentieth century. He also served as United States Senator from N ...
was among his
pallbearer
A pallbearer is one of several participants who help carry the casket at a funeral. They may wear white gloves in order to prevent damaging the casket and to show respect to the deceased person.
Some traditions distinguish between the roles of ...
s.
Reaction to death
News of Stevens' assassination was greeted with sorrow in diplomatic circles in Japan and among American missionaries in Korea, to whom Stevens was well known; United States Ambassador to Japan
Thomas O'Brien was quoted as saying that "the utmost grief is expressed by everyone", adding that he counted Stevens as a "true and useful friend".
Yale University
Yale University is a private research university in New Haven, Connecticut. Established in 1701 as the Collegiate School, it is the third-oldest institution of higher education in the United States and among the most prestigious in the wo ...
professor
George Trumbull Ladd
George Trumbull Ladd (; January 19, 1842 – August 8, 1921) was an American philosopher, educator and psychologist.
Biography
Early life and ancestors
Ladd was born in Painesville, Ohio, on January 19, 1842, the son of Silas Trumbull Ladd and ...
, in a
letter to the editor
A letter to the editor (LTE) is a Letter (message), letter sent to a publication about an issue of concern to the reader. Usually, such letters are intended for publication. In many publications, letters to the editor may be sent either through ...
of ''
The New York Times
''The New York Times'' (''the Times'', ''NYT'', or the Gray Lady) is a daily newspaper based in New York City with a worldwide readership reported in 2020 to comprise a declining 840,000 paid print subscribers, and a growing 6 million paid ...
'', denounced the attacks as "cowardly and shockingly brutal", calling Koreans a "bloody race" and, comparing the Stevens case to a number of other assaults in Korea, such as that against American missionary
George Heber Jones
George Heber Jones (August 14, 1867 – May 11, 1919) was an American Christian missionary in Korea. Jones, who grew up in Utica, New York, is notable as the first Protestant missionary in Korea who took an academic approach to the research o ...
, concluded that politically motivated murders were not "an isolated or at all peculiar experience" in Korea, and stated that the events "furnish an instructive object lesson for the correct estimation of the Korean character and the Korean method of self-government".
Jang and Jeon both stood trial for Stevens's murder separately, as there was insufficient evidence to prove they had conspired with each other; Jeon was quickly acquitted of charges.
The Korean community hired three lawyers to defend Jang, among whom one,
Nathan Coughlan, eventually agreed to take on the case ''
pro bono
( en, 'for the public good'), usually shortened to , is a Latin phrase for professional work undertaken voluntarily and without payment. In the United States, the term typically refers to provision of legal services by legal professionals for pe ...
''. During the trial, he planned to use
Arthur Schopenhauer
Arthur Schopenhauer ( , ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is best known for his 1818 work ''The World as Will and Representation'' (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the phenomenal world as the prod ...
's theory of "patriotic insanity" to argue that Jang was
not guilty by reason of insanity.
The jury found Jang guilty of
second-degree murder on December 23 of that same year.
Later Korean accounts describe Stevens as a traitor to Korea and refer to Jeon and Jang as patriots and heroes.
Publications
"Japan."''
National Geographic
''National Geographic'' (formerly the ''National Geographic Magazine'', sometimes branded as NAT GEO) is a popular American monthly magazine published by National Geographic Partners. Known for its photojournalism, it is one of the most widely ...
'', vol. 6 (Dec. 1894), pp. 193-199
Full issue.MP3
MP3 (formally MPEG-1 Audio Layer III or MPEG-2 Audio Layer III) is a coding format for digital audio developed largely by the Fraunhofer Society in Germany, with support from other digital scientists in the United States and elsewhere. Origin ...
via
Librivox
LibriVox is a group of worldwide volunteers who read and record public domain texts, creating free public domain audiobooks for download from their website and other digital library hosting sites on the internet. It was founded in 2005 by Hugh Mc ...
.
References
Citations
Sources
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*Kidder, Sam (2020) ''Of One Blood All Nations - John Bingham: Ohio Congressman's Diplomatic Career in Meiji Japan (1873-1885)''. Piscataqua Press. .
*
* Koster, John (2019). ''Action Likely in Pacific''. Gloucestershire:
Amberley Publishing
Amberley Publishing are a firm of publishers in Stroud, Gloucestershire, who specialise in non-fiction transport and history books. They were established in 2008 and the chief executive is Nick Hayward who previously worked at AudioGo and Simon a ...
. .
*
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* (Supplement to the January 1903 edition of ''Japan and America'')
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External links
Durham Stevensat SamuraiWiki
*
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on Gusts of Popular Feeling
{{DEFAULTSORT:Stevens, Durham White
1851 births
1908 deaths
1908 murders in the United States
American diplomats
Assassinated American diplomats
Deaths by firearm in California
Lawyers from Washington, D.C.
Oberlin College alumni
People murdered in California
Politicians from Washington, D.C.
Columbian College of Arts and Sciences alumni
Howard University alumni
American expatriates in Japan
American expatriates in Korea