Dono Dal Cielo

The Japanese language makes use of a system of honorific speech, called , which includes honorific suffixes and prefixes when referring to others in a conversation. Suffixes are often gender-specific at the end of names, while prefixes are attached to the beginning of many nouns. Honorific suffixes also indicated the speaker's level and referred an individual's relationship and are often used alongside other components of Japanese honorific speech.Reischauer, Edwin O. (2002). Encyclopedia of Japan. Tōkyō: NetAdvance Inc.

Honorific suffixes are generally used when referring to the person one is talking to or unrelated people and are not used when referring to oneself. The omission of suffixes implies a high degree of intimacy or close friendship.

Usage

Although honorifics are not essential to the grammar of Japanese, they are a fundamental part of its sociolinguistics, and their proper use is deemed essential to proficient and appropriate speech.

The use of honorifics is closely related to Japanese social structures and hierarchies. For example, a 1986 study on the notion that Japanese women spoke more politely than men examined each sex's use of honorifics found that while women spoke more politely on average than men, both sexes used the same level of politeness in the same relative situation. Thus, the difference in politeness was a result of the average social station of women versus men as opposed to an inherent characteristic. Usage in this respect has changed over time as well. A 2012 study from Kobe Shoin Women's University found that the use of honorific suffixes and other polite speech markers have increased significantly over time, while age, sex, and other social variables have become less significant. The paper concluded that honorifics have shifted from a basis in power dynamics to one of personal distance.

They can be applied to either the first or last name depending on which is given. In situations where both the first and last names are spoken, the suffix is attached to whichever comes last in the word order. Japanese names traditionally follow the Eastern name order.

An honorific is generally used when referring to the person one is talking to (one's '' interlocutor''), or when referring to an unrelated third party in speech. However, it is dropped by some superiors when referring to one's in-group or informal writing. It is never used to refer to oneself, except for dramatic effect or some exceptional cases.

Dropping the honorific suffix when referring to one's interlocutor, which is known as to , implies a high degree of intimacy and is generally reserved for one's spouse, younger family members, social inferiors (as in a teacher addressing students in traditional arts), close friends and confidants. Within sports teams or among classmates, where the interlocutors approximately are of the same age or seniority, it can be acceptable to use family names without honorifics. Some people of the younger generation, roughly born since 1970, prefer to be referred to without an honorific. However, dropping honorifics is a sign of informality even with casual acquaintances.

When referring to a third person, honorifics are used except when referring to one's family members while talking to a non-family member or when referring to a member of one's company while talking to a customer or someone from another company—this is the uchi–soto (in-group / out-group) distinction. Honorifics are not used to refer to oneself, except when trying to be arrogant ('' ore-sama''), to be cute (''-chan''), or sometimes when talking to young children to teach them how to address the speaker.

Use of honorifics is correlated with other forms of honorific speech in Japanese, such as the use of the polite form (''-masu, desu'') versus the plain form—that is, using the plain form with a polite honorific (''-san, -sama'') can be jarring.

While these honorifics are solely used on proper nouns, these suffixes can turn common nouns into appropriate nouns when attached to the end of them. This can be seen in words such as which turns the common noun into a proper noun that would refer solely to that particular cat while adding the honorific ''-chan'' can also mean cute.

Translation

When translating honorific suffixes into English, separate pronouns or adjectives must be used to convey characteristics to the person they are referencing. While some honorifics such as ''-san'' are very frequently used due to their gender neutrality and straightforward definition of polite unfamiliarity, other honorifics such as ''-chan'' or ''-kun'' are more specific as to the context in which they must be used as well as the implications they give off when attached to a person's name. These implications can only be translated into English using adjectives or adjective word phrases.

Common honorifics

The most common honorifics include:

''San''

, sometimes pronounced in Kansai dialect, is the most commonplace honorific and is a title of respect typically used between equals of any age. Although the closest analog in English are the honorifics "Mr.", "Miss", "Ms.", or "Mrs.", ''-san'' is almost universally added to a person's name; ''-san'' can be used in formal and informal contexts, regardless of the person's gender. It is also commonly used to convert common nouns into proper ones, as discussed below.

''San'' may be used in combination with workplace nouns, so a bookseller might be addressed or referred to as and a butcher as .

''San'' is sometimes used with company names. For example, the offices or shop of a company called Kojima Denki might be referred to as "Kojima Denki''-san''" by another nearby company. This may be seen on small maps often used in phone books and business cards in Japan, where the names of surrounding companies are written using ''-san''.

''San'' can be attached to the names of animals or even for cooking; "fish" can be referred to as , but both would be considered childish (akin to "Mr. Fish" or "Mr. Fishy" in English) and would be avoided in formal speech. When referring to their spouse as a third party in a conversation, married people often refer to them with ''-san''.

Due to ''-san'' being gender-neutral and commonly used, it can refer to any stranger or acquaintance whom one does not see as a friend. However, it may not be appropriate when using it on someone close or when it is clear that other honorifics should be used.

''Sama''

is a more respectful version for individuals of a higher rank than oneself. Appropriate usages include divine entities, guests or customers (such as a sports venue announcer addressing members of the audience), and sometimes towards people one greatly admires. It is the root word for ''-san''. Deities such as native Shinto ''kami'' and Jesus Christ are referred to as , meaning "Revered spirit''-sama''". When used to refer to oneself, ''-sama'' expresses extreme arrogance (or self-effacing irony), as in praising oneself to be of a higher rank, as with .

''Sama'' customarily follows the addressee's name on all formal correspondence and postal services where the addressee is, or is interpreted as, a customer.

''Sama'' also appears in such set phrases as , , or .

''Kun''

is generally used by people of senior status addressing or referring to those of junior status, or it can be used when referring to men in general, male children or male teenagers, or among male friends. It can be used by males or females when addressing a male to whom they are emotionally attached, or whom they have known for a long time. Although it may seem rude in workplaces, the suffix is also used by seniors when referring to juniors in both academic situations and workplaces, more typically when the two people are associated.

Although ''-kun'' is generally used for boys, it is not a hard rule. For example, ''-kun'' can be used to name a close personal friend or family member of any gender. In business settings, young female employees are addressed as ''-kun'' by older males of senior status. It can be used by male teachers addressing their female students.

''Kun'' can mean different things depending on gender. ''Kun'' for females is a more respectful honorific than ''-chan'', implying childlike cuteness. ''Kun'' is not only used to address females formally; it can also be used for a very close friend or family member. Calling a female ''-kun'' is not insulting and can also mean that the person is respected, although that is not the normal implication. Rarely, sisters with the same name, such as "Miku", may be differentiated by calling one "Miku''-chan''" and the other "Miku''-san''" or "''-sama''", and on some occasions,"''-kun''". ''Chan'' and ''-kun'' occasionally mean similar things. The general use of ''-kun'' for females implies respectful endearment and that the person being referred to is sweet and kind.

In the National Diet (Legislature), the Speaker of the House uses ''-kun'' when addressing Diet members and ministers. An exception was when Takako Doi was the Speaker of the lower house, where she used the title ''-san''.

''Chan''

expresses that the speaker finds a person endearing. In general, ''-chan'' is used for young children, close friends, babies, grandparents and sometimes female adolescents. It may also be used towards cute animals, lovers, or youthful women. ''Chan'' is not usually used for strangers or people one has just met.

Although traditionally, honorifics are not applied to oneself, some people adopt the childlike affectation of referring to themselves in the third person using ''-chan'' (childlike because it suggests that one has not learned to distinguish between names used for oneself and names used by others). For example, a young girl named ''Kanako'' might call herself ''Kanako-chan'' rather than the first-person pronoun.

''Tan''

is intended as an even more cute or affectionate variant of ''-chan''. It evokes a small child's mispronunciation of that form of address, or baby talk – similar to how, for example, a speaker of English might use "widdle" instead of "little" when speaking to a baby. Moe anthropomorphisms are often labeled as ''-tan'', e.g., the commercial mascot Habanero-tan, the manga figure Afghanis-tan or the OS-tans representing operating systems. A more notorious use of the honorific was for the murderer Nevada-tan.

''Bō''

also expresses endearment. Like ''-chan'', it can be used for young children but exclusively for boys instead of girls. See Diminutive suffix and Hypocorism for more info on this linguistic phenomenon.

''Senpai'' and ''kōhai''

is used to address or refer to one's older or more senior colleagues in a school, workplace, dojo, or sports club. Teachers are not ''senpai'', but rather they are ''sensei''. Neither are students of the same or lower grade: they are referred to but never addressed as . In a business environment, those with more experience are ''senpai''.

''Sensei'' and ''hakase''

is used to refer to or address teachers, doctors, politicians, lawyers, and other authority figures. It is used to show respect to someone who has achieved mastery in an art form or some other skill, such as accomplished novelists, musicians, artists, and martial artists. In Japanese martial arts, ''sensei'' typically refers to someone who is the head of a dojo. As with ''senpai'', ''sensei'' can be used not only as a suffix but also as a stand-alone title. The term is not generally used when addressing a person with very high academic expertise; the one used instead is .

''Shi''

is used in formal writing and sometimes in very formal speech for referring to a person who is unfamiliar to the speaker, typically a person known through publications whom the speaker has never actually met. For example, the ''-shi'' title is common in the speech of newsreaders. It is preferred in legal documents, academic journals, and other formal written styles. Once a person's name has been used with ''-shi'', the person can be referred to with ''shi'' alone, without the name, as long as only one person is being referred to.

''O-'' and ''go-'' prefix

''O-'' (お-) and ''go''- (ご-) are honorific prefixes used to exalt nouns. They can be applied to things like a garden (お庭, ''oniwa'') or to people in conjunction with a suffix, like a doctor (お医者さん, ''oishasan''). ''O-'' is used for words with Japanese roots, while ''go-'' is used for words with Chinese roots, although exceptions such as ''ojōsan'' (お嬢さん), ''oishasan'' above, ''okyakusama'' (お客様) where ''o-'' is used with Chinese words still occur. They are only ever used in the second or third person, and when applied to an object indicate respect for the owner of the object rather than the object itself. For example, one would refer to the parents of another as ''goryōshin'' (ご両親) while their own parents would be ''ryōshin'' (両親).

Other titles

Occupation-related titles

It is common to use a job title after someone's name, instead of using a general honorific. For example, an named Ichiro might be referred to as "''Ichiro-senshu''" rather than "''Ichiro-san''", and a named Suzuki might be referred to as "''Suzuki-tōryō''" rather than "''Suzuki-san''".

In a business setting, it is common to refer to people using their rank, especially for positions of authority, such as or . Within one's own company or when speaking of another company, title + ''san'' is used, so a president is ''Shachō-san''. When speaking of one's own company to a customer or another company, the title is used by itself or attached to a name, so a department chief named Suzuki is referred to as ''Buchō'' or ''Suzuki-buchō''.

However, when referring to oneself, the title is used indirectly, as using it directly is perceived as arrogant. Thus, a department chief named Suzuki will introduce themselves as 部長の鈴木 ''buchō no Suzuki'' ("Suzuki, the department chief"), rather than ×鈴木部長 *''Suzuki-buchō'' ("Department Chief Suzuki").

For criminals and the accused

Convicted and suspected criminals were once referred to without any title. Still, now an effort is made to distinguish between , , and , so as not to presume guilt before anything has been proven. These titles can be used by themselves or attached to names.

However, although "suspect" and "defendant" began as neutral descriptions, they have become derogatory over time. When actor and musician Gorō Inagaki was arrested for a traffic accident in 2001, some media referred to him with the newly made title , originating from the English word "member", to avoid the use of . But in addition to being criticized as an unnatural term, this title also became derogatory almost instantly—an example of euphemism treadmill.

Criminals who are sentenced to death for the serious crimes such as murder, treason, etc. are referred to as .

For companies

There are several different words for "our company" and "your company". "Our company" can be expressed with the humble or the neutral , and "your company" can be expressed with the honorific or . Additionally, the neutral can refer to either the speaker's or the listener's company. All of these titles are used by themselves, not attached to names.

When mentioning a company's name, it is considered important to include its status depending on whether it is or . These are often abbreviated as 株 and 有, respectively.

Imperial styles

''Heika'' (陛下 へいか), literally meaning "below the steps f the throne, and equivalent to "Majesty", is the most formal style of nobility in Japan, and is reserved only for the Emperor, Empress, Empress Dowager or Grand Empress Dowager. All other members of the Imperial Family are styled ''Denka'' (殿下 でんか), the equivalent of "Highness". Although the monarch of Japan is an emperor, he is not usually styled as "Imperial Majesty", however other members of the Imperial family are customarily styled "His/Her Imperial Highness" whilst the Emperor's style in English is simply "His Majesty".

''Dono'' / ''tono''

, pronounced when attached to a name, roughly means "lord" or "master". It does not equate noble status. Rather it is a term akin to "milord" or French "''monseigneur''" or Portuguese/Spanish/Italian "''don''", and lies below ''-sama'' in level of respect. This title is not commonly used in daily conversation, but it is still used in some types of written business correspondence, as well as on certificates and awards, and in written correspondence in tea ceremonies. It is also used to indicate that the person referred to has the same (high) rank as the referrer, yet commands respect from the speaker.

''No kimi''

is another suffix coming from Japanese history. It was used to denominate lords and ladies in the court, especially during the Heian period. The most famous example is the Prince Hikaru Genji, protagonist of '' The Tale of Genji'' who was called . Nowadays, this suffix can be used as a metaphor for someone who behaves like a prince or princess from ancient times, but its use is very rare. Its main usage remains in historical dramas.

This suffix also appears when addressing lovers in letters from a man to a woman, as in .

''Ue''

literally means "above", and denotes a high level of respect. While its use is no longer common, it is still seen in constructions like , and , reverent terms for "father", "mother" and "older sister" respectively. Receipts that do not require specification of the payer's name are often filled in with ''ue-sama''.

Martial arts titles

Martial artists often address their teachers as ''sensei''. Junior and senior students are organized via a '' senpai/kōhai'' system.
Also in some systems of karate, ''O-Sensei'' is the title of the (deceased) head of the style. This is how the founder of Aikido, Morihei Ueshiba is often referred to by practitioners of that art. The ''O-'' prefix itself, translating roughly as "great r or "major", is also an honorific.

Various titles are also employed to refer to senior instructors. Which titles are used depends on the particular licensing organization.

''Shōgō''

are martial arts titles developed by the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai, the Kokusai Budoin, and the International Martial Arts Federation Europe. Many organizations in Japan award such titles upon a sincere study and dedication of Japanese martial arts. The below mentioned titles are awarded after observing a person's martial arts skills, his/her ability of teaching and understanding of martial arts and the most importantly as a role model and the perfection of one's character.

* : Polished Instructor (skilled person or expert teacher) Awarded to 4th dan and above.
* refers to an advanced teacher (senior teacher/expert). Awarded to 6th dan and above.
* refers to a senior expert considered a "teacher of teachers". This title is used by many different arts for the top few instructors of that style, and is sometimes translated "Grand Master". Awarded to 8th dan and above.
* : awarded by a special board of examiners.

Other martial arts titles

* , master, especially a sumo coach. The literal sense is of someone ''in loco parentis''. Also used by the Yakuza. In ancient times, it was also used by samurai to address the daimyō they serve, as he was ''Oyakata-sama'', the clan's don.
* , merely means chief instructor; unlike the titles above, it is not related to grade.
* , intermediate instructor, also unrelated to grade.
* , another title used for martial arts instructors.
* , used for sumo wrestlers in the top two divisions (sekitori).

Levels of black belts are occasionally used as martial arts titles:
* – 1st dan
* – 2nd dan
* – 3rd dan
* – 4th dan
* – 5th dan
* – 6th dan
* – 7th dan
* – 8th dan
* – 9th dan
* – 10th dan

Religion

* , Orthodox or Catholic priest (lit. Godfather). A receives this title.
* , Protestant priest. This title is given to a .

Euphonic suffixes and wordplay

In informal speech, some Japanese people may use contrived suffixes in place of normal honorifics. This is essentially a form of wordplay, with suffixes being chosen for their sound, or for friendly or scornful connotations. Although the range of such suffixes that might be coined is limitless, some have gained such widespread usage that the boundary between established honorifics and wordplay has become a little blurred. Examples of such suffixes include variations on ''-chan'' (see below), ''-bee'' (scornful), and ''-rin'' (friendly).''Rin'' is thought to have been inspired by European girl's names like ''Katherine'' and ''Marilyn''

/ref>
Note that unlike a proper honorific, use of such suffixes is governed largely by how they sound in conjunction with a particular name, and on the effect the speaker is trying to achieve.

Baby talk variations

Some honorifics have baby talk versions—mispronunciations stereotypically associated with small children and cuteness, and more frequently used in popular entertainment than in everyday speech. The baby talk version of ''-sama'' is .

There are even baby talk versions of baby talk versions. ''Chan'' can be changed to , and less often, to .

Familial honorifics

Words for family members have two different forms in Japanese. When referring to one's own family members while speaking to a non-family-member, neutral, descriptive nouns are used, such as for "mother" and for "older brother". Honorific forms are used when addressing one's own family members or addressing or referring to someone else's family members. Using the suffix ''-san'', as is most common, "mother" becomes and "older brother" becomes . The honorifics ''-chan'' and '' #Sama, -sama'' may also be used instead of ''-san'', to express a higher level of closeness or reverence, respectively.

The general rule is that a younger family member (e.g., a young brother) addresses an older family member (e.g., a big sister) using an honorific form, while the more senior family member calls the younger one only by name.

The honorific forms are:
* : father. The descriptive noun is .
** : uncle, or also "middle-aged gentleman".
** : grandfather, or also "male senior-citizen".
* : mother. The descriptive noun is .
** : aunt, or also "middle-aged lady".
** : grandmother, or also "female senior-citizen".
* : big brother, or also "a young gentleman". The descriptive noun is .
* : big sister, or also "a young lady". The descriptive noun is .

The initial prefix in these nouns is itself an honorific prefix. In more casual situations the speaker may omit this prefix but keep the suffix.
* or : when a young sibling addresses his or her own "big brother".
* or : when a young sibling addresses his or her own "big sister".
* : when a person addresses their own "wife" (the "mother" of their children).
* : when a person addresses their own "husband" (the "father" of their children).
* : when grandchildren address their "grandma".
* : when grandchildren address their "grandpa".

See also

* Aizuchi
* Honorific speech in Japanese
* Etiquette in Japan
* Japanese pronouns
* Zen ranks and hierarchy

Other languages

* T–V distinction (politeness differences more generally)
* Chinese honorifics
* Chinese titles
* Korean honorifics

References

Bibliography

*
*
*
*

Further reading

* Reprinted in Natsuko Tsujimura (ed.) ''Japanese Linguistics: Critical Concepts in Linguistics''. Oxford: Routledge, 2005, pp. 159–190.

External links

How to use Japanese suffixes



Japanese Dictionary with Hiragana, Katakana and Kanji virtual keyboards

Japanese Honorifics - How to use San, Sama, Kun and ChanHow to use Otsukaresama

{{Authority control