The Donghak Peasant Revolution (), also known as the Donghak Peasant Movement (), Donghak Rebellion, Peasant Revolt of 1894, Gabo Peasant Revolution, and a variety of
other names
Other often refers to:
* Other (philosophy), a concept in psychology and philosophy
Other or The Other may also refer to:
Film and television
* ''The Other'' (1913 film), a German silent film directed by Max Mack
* ''The Other'' (1930 film), ...
, was an armed rebellion in Korea led by peasants and followers of the
Donghak
Donghak (formerly spelled Tonghak; ) was an academic movement in Korean Neo-Confucianism founded in 1860 by Choe Je-u. The Donghak movement arose as a reaction to seohak (), and called for a return to the "Way of Heaven". While Donghak origin ...
religion, a pantheistic religion viewed by many rebels as a political ideology.
In 1894, the magistrate of
Gobu, Jo Byeonggap, had created various oppressive laws and forced the peasants to build reservoirs and settle in unowned lands in order to get rich from taxes and fines. In March, angered peasants allied under
Jeon Bongjun
Jeon Bong-jun (1855 – 1895) was born in Taein, Jeollabuk-do, Korea. He was a prominent leader of the Donghak Peasant Revolution. Due to his short physical stature, he was called "''Nokdu Janggun''" (녹두장군, General mung bean).
Struggle ...
and Kim Gaenam, beginning the Gobu Revolt. However, the Gobu revolt was suppressed by Yi Yongtae, and
Jeon Bongjun
Jeon Bong-jun (1855 – 1895) was born in Taein, Jeollabuk-do, Korea. He was a prominent leader of the Donghak Peasant Revolution. Due to his short physical stature, he was called "''Nokdu Janggun''" (녹두장군, General mung bean).
Struggle ...
fled to Taein. In April, Jeon gathered an army in
Mount Baek and recaptured Gobu. The rebels then proceeded to defeat governmental forces in Battle of Hwangtojae and Battle of the Hwangryong River. Jeon then captured
Jeonju Fortress and fought in a siege with Hong Gyehun's Joseon forces. In May, however, the rebels had signed the Treaty of Jeonju (全州和約) truce with the governmental forces, and built agencies called ''Jibgangso'' that handled affairs in rebel-controlled areas. This somewhat unsteady peace continued throughout the summer.
The frightened government asked the
Qing dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
for help, and it sent 2,700 soldiers to Korea. Japan, angered that the Qing government had not informed Japan (as promised in the
Convention of Tientsin
The , also known as the Tianjin Convention, was an agreement signed by the Qing Empire of China and the Empire of Japan in Tientsin, China on 18 April 1885. It was also called the "Li-Itō Convention".
Following the Gapsin Coup in Joseon in 1884, ...
), started the
First Sino-Japanese War
The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a conflict between China and Japan primarily over influence in Korea. After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the po ...
. The war resulted in an expulsion of Chinese influence in Korea and also signaled an end for the
Self-Strengthening Movement
The Self-Strengthening Movement, also known as the Westernization or Western Affairs Movement (–1895), was a period of radical institutional reforms initiated in China during the late Qing dynasty following the military disasters of the Opium ...
in China itself.
Growing Japanese dominance in the Korean Peninsula had caused anxiety amongst the rebels. From September to October, the Southern and Northern leaders negotiated the plans for the future in
Samrye. On October 12, a coalition army of Northern and Southern Jeobs were formed, and the army, numbering 25,000~200,000 (records differ), went on to attack
Gongju
Gongju ([]; Gongju-si) is a city in South Chungcheong province, South Korea.
History
Gongju was formerly named Ungjin and was the capital of Baekje from AD 475 to 538. In this period, Baekje was under threat from Goguryeo. Goguryeo had overrun ...
. After a number of battles, the rebel army was decisively defeated in the
Battle of Ugeumchi
The Battle of Ugeumchi was a decisive battle during the Donghak Peasant Revolution. Fought between the Donghak Korean peasants and the combined Japanese-Joseon Army, resulted in the decline of the Donghak Rebellion and the growth of Japanese Impe ...
, and the rebels were again defeated in the Battle of Taein. Hostility continued deep into the spring of 1895. The rebel leaders were captured in various locations in the
Honam Region, and most were executed by a mass hanging in March.
Background
19th-century Korean society was extremely unstable, due to a high number of rebellions. The series of revolts began with the Gwanseo Peasant War and effectively ended with the Donghak Peasant Revolution.
Gwanseo Peasant War
The first large revolt was the
Gwanseo Peasant War (1811–1812). The rebel leader
Hong Gyeong-Rae prepared for the rebellion since 1801. By September 1811, Hong Gyeongnae had gathered an army in Chudo Island, gathering support from the rich landowners.
The revolt began on December 18, with the writing of the following message in
Jeongju Fortress :
I, the Great Leader of Western Pyongan
Pyeong-an Province (, ) was one of Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Pyeong'an was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Pyeongyang (now Pyongyang, North Korea).
History
Pyeong'an Province was formed in ...
, write this message with haste. Since old, the Gwanseo Region was the abode of Dangun
Dangun (; ) or Dangun Wanggeom (; ) was the legendary founder and god-king of Gojoseon, the first Korean kingdom, around present-day Liaoning province in Northeast China and the northern part of the Korean Peninsula. He is said to be the "gran ...
(Mythical founder of Korea), and Gwanseo was the key to the two wars (Japanese. Manchu invasions of Korea). Is it not injust, how the government treats us? There is a young king ( King Sunjo), and corrupt officials are everywhere around him. As Kim Josun and Park Jonggyeong rule the country as if it is theirs, the government is in chaos, and the people are poor. But thankfully, a man has emerged who shall save the world. Open your doors wide and meet our army. If any foolishly resist, we shall crush you with our 5,000 swords...
Hong Gyeongnae captured most of the Gwanseo Region in ten days. However, his army was defeated in the Battle of Songnim, and by January 1812 was isolated in Jeongju Fortress. Governmental forces finally collapsed the walls of Jeongju by using eleven tons of explosives dug under the wall. All male rebels above the age of ten were executed.
Imsul Peasant Revolt
Another large-scale revolt was the Imsul Peasant Revolts (1862), in which 71 towns simultaneously revolted. The government often taxed dead people or infants, although only those over fifteen were legally eligible to be taxed. Moreover, most of the remainder were given to the landowner. The revolt began on February 10,
Jinju. The people of Jinju captured the magistrate Baek Nakshin, and burned landlords Jeong Namseong, Seong Buin, and Choe Jinsa at the stake. Their sons were killed as well while attempting to save their fathers. The revolts soon spread throughout most of Southern Korea, and continued until January, 1863. The people of
Gwangju
Gwangju () is South Korea's sixth-largest metropolis. It is a designated metropolitan city under the direct control of the central government's Home Minister. The city was also the capital of South Jeolla Province until the provincial office ...
even rode to Seoul. The revolts were most severe in
Jeolla Province
Jeolla Province (, ) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in today Southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and Gwangju Metropolitan City as wel ...
, the later site of the Donghak Revolution, in which 38 of 54 towns actively revolted.
Founding of Donghak
Various secret societies formed, apart from the rebellions, including the Salbangye, 'Association of the killers of the
Yangban
The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil servants and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats ...
(aristocrats)', the Saljugye, 'Association of the killers of the (slave's) masters', the Salryakgye, 'Association of killers and robbers', the Geomgye, 'Sword association', the Judogye, 'Association of the drunk', the Yudan, 'League of Wanderers', and the Nokrimdang, 'Group of the Green Woods' (Nokrimdang were 'noble thieves', who stole from the rich and gave to the poor).
It was in this turbulent age that the
Donghak
Donghak (formerly spelled Tonghak; ) was an academic movement in Korean Neo-Confucianism founded in 1860 by Choe Je-u. The Donghak movement arose as a reaction to seohak (), and called for a return to the "Way of Heaven". While Donghak origin ...
religion, the later
Cheondoism
Cheondoism (spelled Chondoism in North Korean sources; ) is a 20th-century Korean pantheistic religion, based on the 19th-century Donghak religious movement founded by Ch'oe Che-u and codified under Son Pyŏng-Hi. Cheondoism has its origins i ...
, formed. Its founder,
Choe Jeu, described the founding of the religion, which was later transcribed by Choe Sihyeong, the second Donghak leader:
Donghak was a
mixture of various religions. Its core tenets and beliefs (monotheism, sacred book, organized religion) are similar to
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
. Choe himself said that "the meanings
etween Christianity and Donghakare the same; only the words are different". The Donghak conversion rite, in which hundreds of people gathered in an open place and knelt before a cup of clean water, was partly influenced by the Christian
baptism
Baptism (from grc-x-koine, βάπτισμα, váptisma) is a form of ritual purification—a characteristic of many religions throughout time and geography. In Christianity, it is a Christian sacrament of initiation and adoption, almost inv ...
ritual.
However, many direct influences were from
shamanism
Shamanism is a religious practice that involves a practitioner (shaman) interacting with what they believe to be a Spirit world (Spiritualism), spirit world through Altered state of consciousness, altered states of consciousness, such as tranc ...
and folk beliefs. Witnesses record that Choe Jeu participated in animistic rituals to mountain deities. His incantations and the Sword Dance were also derived from shamanism.
Certain beliefs were unique to Donghak. Choe Jeu said that "All humans are Hanulnim". Choe promoted human equality, and created certain ideologies such as the belief that the world was a cycle of 5,000 years (''Jeoncheon'' and ''Hucheon''), and that this cycle was ending to make way for a new world. This made Donghak potentially dangerous to the
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and re ...
, which banned the religion and executed Choe in 1864 for 'Tricking and Lying to the Foolish People'.
Nevertheless, Donghak spread all across
Gyeongsang Province by the 1870s, causing need for a better organization. Donghak was organized into 'Jeob' and 'Po'. A 'Jeobju'(접주,接主) administered a 'Jeob'. For example, Jeon Bongjun, the leader of the revolution, was Jeobju of Gobu. Under a Jeobju was a 'Myeonjeobju'. In large towns (such as Taein or
Jeonju
Jeonju () is the 16th largest city in South Korea and the capital of North Jeolla Province. It is both urban and rural due to the closeness of Wanju County which almost entirely surrounds Jeonju (Wanju County has many residents who work in Jeonju) ...
) were a 'Great Jeobju', as Kim Gaenam was the Great Jeobju of Taein. Various Jeobs were organized into a 'Po', and a 'Poju' led a Po. The 'Gyoju', at the time Choe Sihyeong, led the whole Donghak religion.
Yi Pilje's Revolt
In 1871, Yi Pilje, Jeobju of Yeonghae, revolted using the Donghak infrastructure. The revolt failed, but proved that Donghak was a danger to the feudalistic Korean society.
Yi Pilje's Revolt seriously undermined Donghak in Gyeongsang Province, causing Choe Sihyeong to spread the religion to the populous provinces of
Chungcheong
Chungcheong (''Chungcheong-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was located at Gongju, which had been the capital of the kingdom o ...
and
Jeolla
Jeolla Province (, ) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in today Southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and Gwangju Metropolitan City as wel ...
. Choe wandered around these two provinces, spreading Donghak. Son Hwajung was one of the first to convert in 1881, and he converted
Jeon Bongjun
Jeon Bong-jun (1855 – 1895) was born in Taein, Jeollabuk-do, Korea. He was a prominent leader of the Donghak Peasant Revolution. Due to his short physical stature, he was called "''Nokdu Janggun''" (녹두장군, General mung bean).
Struggle ...
in 1891. Son Byeongheui was converted in 1882 by Choe himself, as was Kim Gaenam in 1890. As seen below, he claimed conversion in 1891.
Gyojo Shinwon movement
By the 1890s, Donghak believers began a petition to overturn the 1863 Choe Jeu's execution charges. By this time, the religion was split into the 'Northern Jeob' and the 'Southern Jeob'. Seo Inju, leader of the Southern Jeob, asked Choe Sihyeong, the Gyoju, for a petition. Choe did not answer the request, presumably remembering the effects of Yi Pilje's Revolt on
Donghak
Donghak (formerly spelled Tonghak; ) was an academic movement in Korean Neo-Confucianism founded in 1860 by Choe Je-u. The Donghak movement arose as a reaction to seohak (), and called for a return to the "Way of Heaven". While Donghak origin ...
in
Gyeongsang. Seo Inju and the Southern Jeob independently held a petition to free imprisoned Donghak believers and to restore the honor of Choe Jeu, which was not easily granted. In November 1892, Jeon Bongjun led the Samrye Petition, petitioning for:
# Do not ban Donghak.
# Expel all Western missionaries and merchants.
# Kill corrupt officials.
In December, there was another petition in the market of Boeun. Many Southern Jeob believers thought they should march into
Seoul
Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) as stated iArticle 103 ...
and petition before the king, but Choe Sihyeong finally quelled the Boeun petition, instead penning a letter to King
Gojong:
We... are determined to follow this new doctrine (Donghak) only because we want people to reform themselves, to be loyal to their king, to show filial piety to their parents, to respect their teachers, and to show friendship to their fellow men.
In response,
Gojong ordered the Northern messengers to "go to your homes. If you do, I may grant your plea". Meanwhile, Seo Inju and the Southern Jeob were threatening Westerners and Japanese with bodily harm, saying "If you do not flee by March the seventh, we shall all kill you. You are causing injustice in a foreign land." This was attached to American, French, and Japanese
legations
A legation was a diplomatic representative office of lower rank than an embassy. Where an embassy was headed by an ambassador, a legation was headed by a minister. Ambassadors outranked ministers and had precedence at official events. Legation ...
, Christian churches and schools, and districts with a large number of foreigners taking residence.
Jeon Bongjun, meanwhile, led his followers into Boeun, which became the most violent and revolutionary petition in the Gyojo Shinwon Movement. His followers all wore blue clothes with red gloves. About 80,000 believers, with the flags "Expel Westerners and Japanese", gathered in the market and built an earthen fortress. Revolutionary thoughts, such as "In other countries, the people hold councils and decide upon the government. This petition is like that. Why suppress it?" formed. The petition was also more extreme. The requests were:
* Reclaim the honour of founder
Choe Jeu.
* Cease the persecution of Donghak believers.
* Chase away colonial powers.
* Cease all imports of foreign merchandise, and wear cotton and use necessities made in Korea.
* Dispose the Min family of oligarchical power.
* Lower taxes.
* Ban the inflation-causing
Dangojeon coin.
* Stop illegal taxation.
Northern Jeob leaders, such as Choe Sihyeong and Son Byeongheui, feared that the government would execute Donghak believers, and stopped the petition within three days. Jeon Bongjun returned to Gobu.
Gobu Revolt
The rebellion's immediate cause was the conduct of
Jo Byeonggap, the ruling official of Gobu.
After his capture, Jeon gave a detailed account of Jo's misdeeds:
* He built Manseokbo reservoir under the already existing Min Reservoir (now Yedeung Reservoir) and took water taxes from the peasants, two sacks of rice for using the upper reservoir and a sack of rice for using the lower reservoir. He collected seven hundred sacks of rice in total.
* He promised that peasants who farmed abandoned land would be exempt from taxes for five years, but he forced them to pay taxes in the autumn of 1893.
* He fined affluent peasants for dubious crimes, including 'infidelity', 'lack of harmony', 'adultery', and 'needless talents', by which he collected 20,000 nyang (''nyang'' was a unit of Korean currency, equivalent to seventy US dollars, making 20,000 nyang equivalent 1.4 million U.S. dollars).
* He taxed a thousand nyang (the equivalent of 700 thousand US dollars) to build a monument to his father, Jo Hugyun, who had been the magistrate of Taein.
* For sacks of rice to send to the government, he sent only sacks of spoiled rice to Seoul, taking unspoiled sacks for himself.
* While he was building the reservoir, he heedlessly cut down trees centuries old and did not give any wages to the workers.
![Sabal Tongmun](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Sabal_Tongmun.jpg)
Of these, the construction of Manseokbo reservoir caused the most fury. Yedeung Reservoir had caused the Baedeul fields to not suffer from starvation ever since Yedeung was built. However, the construction of the new reservoir blocked creeks in the region, causing widespread damage through flooding.
![Chunbongjun01](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Chunbongjun01.jpg)
Donghak believers and angered peasants began forming a rebel army. They used the Sabal Tongmun, in which names were written around a circular cone as to form a circle. The Sabal Tongmun made the leader of the writers unclear (because it was impossible to know who had signed their name first). On January 10, 1894, a thousand rebels gathered in an abandoned horse ranch. Splitting into two armies, they destroyed three of the four gates of Gobu and occupied the government office. Jo fled Gobu to
Jeonju
Jeonju () is the 16th largest city in South Korea and the capital of North Jeolla Province. It is both urban and rural due to the closeness of Wanju County which almost entirely surrounds Jeonju (Wanju County has many residents who work in Jeonju) ...
(he was exiled after the war ended, and returned from his exile to become a judge).
For a week, the rebels destroyed prisons and freed innocent prisoners, armed themselves with weapons from the local armory, punished corrupt officials who had been captured, returned taxed and fined property to original owners, and destroyed Manseokbo Reservoir. However, the crisis ended when Jo was replaced by Park Wonmyeong, who convinced rebels to disband.
The First Revolt
Jeon and Kim went south to Mujang, where they met
Son Hwajung. The rebels properly organized in Mujang, and on March 20, the 4,000 rebels of Mujang turned towards Mount Baek, Gobu. While camped in Mount Baek, the army grew to tens of thousands. Choe Deokyeong's 300 peasants joined them from the north. Here, the aphorism came: "When sitting, a white mountain; when standing, a bamboo mountain". (rebels mostly wore white, and used bamboo spears. The term may have appeared earlier, however, as Mount Juk, meaning 'bamboo mountain', could only be seen when standing, as it was covered by smaller Mount Baek, 'white mountain'.) On March 22, the rebels destroyed the reservoir and burned down governmental offices and storages.
The rebels camped for four days in Gobu, and new rebels joined them every day. After making Jeon Bongjun as the leader and Kim Gaenam and Son Hwajung as generals, the rebels occupied Taein (April 1) and Buan (April 4). The leaders also ordered the rebels to follow the four guidelines:
# Do not kill the innocent and refrain from eating farm animals.
# Open the Hucheon through loyalty and piety and appease the people.
# Defeat every single barbarians of Japan and purify the holy land.
# Drive the army into Seoul and kill every member of the Min family.
The rebels also "did not seek alcohol and women and did not smoke tobacco". They did not forcefully take food, but paid for them in money.
The government sent Yi Gyeonghyo to quell the rebellion, and made an emergency army of 700 soldiers and 600 merchants. The 10,000 rebels lured governmental forces into Hwangto Pass. In the dawn of April the 7th, the governmental soldiers charged into the rebel camp, but found it empty. Soldiers were in chaos. Suddenly, the rebels, moving under the cover of fog, emerged from the mountains and attacked the governmental forces, killing a thousand soldiers. Most of the rebels were unharmed in the thus concluded
Battle of Hwangtojae
A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force ...
.
By April 17, however, Jeon turned south to
Yeonggwang
Yeonggwang County (''Yeonggwang-gun'') is a county in South Jeolla Province, South Korea.
Speciality
Yeonggwang is a large producer of a fish, the small yellow croaker which are sometimes given by Korean people as a gift to others. It is called ...
, where Hong Gyehun's governmental troops were waiting. Jeon attempted to lure the troops to
Jangseong
Jangseong County (''Jangseong-gun'') is a county in South Jeolla Province, South Korea.
Jangseong is in the southern region of the Korean peninsula and Gwangju and Naju is the nearest city from Jangseong. In South Jeolla, it near the northern bor ...
, and the general Yi Hakseung chased after them. Yi Hakseung attacked while the rebels were camped on the Hwangryong River, eating lunch. The rebel leader Yi Bangeon envisioned a new strategy. The rebels fled to the mountains, then ran downhill rolling thousands of ''Jangtae'', or chicken cages. The Jangtae blocked most bullets, thus rendering the government's superior weapons useless. Moreover, Jeon placed the rebel army so that they would divide Yi Hakseung's troops into three separate divisions. Yi Hakseung ordered the troops to use their cannons, but they did not work because the pro-rebel villagers had put water inside the cannons (following the incident, rumours spread throughout the government forces that a ghost had destroyed the cannons). More than 300 governmental forces but only two rebels died in the Battle of the Hwangryong River.
After the Hwangryong, a royal messenger came to Jeon with bribes to quell the rebellion. Jeon killed the messenger, but took the needed money. Jeon then turned north and occupied
Jeonju
Jeonju () is the 16th largest city in South Korea and the capital of North Jeolla Province. It is both urban and rural due to the closeness of Wanju County which almost entirely surrounds Jeonju (Wanju County has many residents who work in Jeonju) ...
, the largest city in Jeolla province at the time. not choosing to take
Naju
Naju () is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea.
The capital of South Jeolla was located at Naju until it was moved to Gwangju in 1895. The name Jeolla actually originates from the first character of Jeonju () and the first character of Na ...
to the south. Hong Gyehun quickly returned north, beginning the Siege of Jeonju Fortress.
On May 1, Hong Gyehun began to fire cannons into Jeonju, killing and burning civilians and civilian properties. On May 2, however,
King Taejo of Joseon
Taejo of Joseon (4 November 1335 – 27 June 1408), born Yi Seong-gye (), was the founder and first ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. After ascending to the throne, he changed his name to Yi Dan (), and reigned from 1392 to 1398. He was ...
's portrait was burned down by Hong's incessant bombing, ceasing the attack. In the morning of May 3, Jeon led an attack on Hong's camp, but was defeated by superior firepower. The ''Jangtae'' only hindered the rebels in Jeonju's mountainous location. Jeon himself had a shrapnel lodged in his shoulder from this attack.
Meanwhile, on April 29, the administrator of Jeonju, Kim Munhyeon, had appeared in
Gongju
Gongju ([]; Gongju-si) is a city in South Chungcheong province, South Korea.
History
Gongju was formerly named Ungjin and was the capital of Baekje from AD 475 to 538. In this period, Baekje was under threat from Goguryeo. Goguryeo had overrun ...
and told the government of the fall of Jeonju. Unable to control the rebellion, the government of Joseon formally requested the military assistance from both Japan and China. On May 3, 1,500
Qing Dynasty
The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
forces appeared in Incheon. The same day, 6,000
Japanese
Japanese may refer to:
* Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia
* Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan
* Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture
** Japanese diaspor ...
forces also landed in Incheon. The Japanese inquired why Qing had not notified the Japanese government in accordance to the
Convention of Tientsin
The , also known as the Tianjin Convention, was an agreement signed by the Qing Empire of China and the Empire of Japan in Tientsin, China on 18 April 1885. It was also called the "Li-Itō Convention".
Following the Gapsin Coup in Joseon in 1884, ...
, and soon caused the
First Sino-Japanese War
The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a conflict between China and Japan primarily over influence in Korea. After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the po ...
.
On May 7, Kim Hakjin, the new administrator of Jeonju, ordered Hong to make peace with the rebels. The rebels, suffering from lack of food (The
Jeonju Bibimbap
Bibimbap
* ( , from Korean , literally "mixed rice"), sometimes romanized as bi bim bap or bi bim bop, is a Korean rice dish. The term "bibim" means "mixing" and "bap" refers to cooked rice. ''Bibimbap'' is served as a bowl of warm white rice ...
cuisine formed in the Siege of Jeonju), accepted. This came to be called the Treaty of Jeonju(全州和約) or Jeonju Truce. Hong accepted twelve rebel requests:
# Accept the
Donghak
Donghak (formerly spelled Tonghak; ) was an academic movement in Korean Neo-Confucianism founded in 1860 by Choe Je-u. The Donghak movement arose as a reaction to seohak (), and called for a return to the "Way of Heaven". While Donghak origin ...
religion.
# Punish corrupt officials.
# Punish those who became illegally rich.
# Punish corrupt
Yangban
The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil servants and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats ...
and
Seonbi
Seonbi or sŏnbi were scholars during the Goryeo and Joseon periods of Korea who served the public without a government position, choosing to pass up positions of wealth and power to lead lives of study and integrity. Those who chose to serve the ...
.
# Free all
slaves
Slavery and enslavement are both the state and the condition of being a slave—someone forbidden to quit one's service for an enslaver, and who is treated by the enslaver as property. Slavery typically involves slaves being made to perf ...
.
# Free the
Cheonmin
''Cheonmin'' (), or "vulgar commoners", were the lowest caste of commoners in dynastical Korea. They abounded during the Goryeo (918–1392) and Joseon (1392–1897) periods of Korea's agrarian bureaucracy.
Social class system
In the caste s ...
class, and cease the branding of butchers.
# Legalize the remarriage of widows.
# Lower taxes.
# Pick politicians based on qualities, not families.
# Punish those who cooperate with the
Empire of Japan
The also known as the Japanese Empire or Imperial Japan, was a historical nation-state and great power that existed from the Meiji Restoration in 1868 until the enactment of the post-World War II 1947 constitution and subsequent fo ...
.
# Illegalize debts.
# Give their land to all peasants.
Following the truce, the rebels climbed out of the fortress using ladders, and Hong entered the empty fortress.
Both sides celebrated their 'victory'. Hong held a feast with his soldiers inside
Jeonju Fortress, while the rebels sang the ''Geomgyeol'', a
Donghak
Donghak (formerly spelled Tonghak; ) was an academic movement in Korean Neo-Confucianism founded in 1860 by Choe Je-u. The Donghak movement arose as a reaction to seohak (), and called for a return to the "Way of Heaven". While Donghak origin ...
religious hymn which begins:
''Good times, good times, these are good times. These are the best times to come. What must be done if not to use the Thousand Dragons Blade.''
Summer of 1894
The summer of 1894 was marked by rebel rule over most of Southwest Korea. Jeon Bongjun established the Jeollajwaudo Daedoso (''Great Capital of the Two
Jeolla Province
Jeolla Province (, ) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in today Southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and Gwangju Metropolitan City as wel ...
s'') in
Jeonju
Jeonju () is the 16th largest city in South Korea and the capital of North Jeolla Province. It is both urban and rural due to the closeness of Wanju County which almost entirely surrounds Jeonju (Wanju County has many residents who work in Jeonju) ...
, and built ''Jibgangso'' in most towns. In
Naju
Naju () is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea.
The capital of South Jeolla was located at Naju until it was moved to Gwangju in 1895. The name Jeolla actually originates from the first character of Jeonju () and the first character of Na ...
,
Namwon
Namwon (; ''Namwon-si'') is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. Namwon is about 50 minutes from the provincial capital of Jeonju, which is almost three hours away from Seoul. The official city flower is Royal Azalea () while the city tr ...
, and Unbong, however, the rebels met fierce resistance from landowners. Jeon had not subdued these southern cities, as he went north after the Battle of the Hwangryong. Choe Gyeongseon attacked Naju with 3,000 rebels, and the landowners of Naju began to fortify Naju against rebel attacks. Jeon himself met the Naju landowners and convinced them to allow Jibgangso construction in Naju. However, Naju was still not under complete rebel control, and later became the center for rebel persecution. In Namwon, Kim Kaenam also battled landowners with 3,000 rebels, took the fortress, and hanged Kim Yongheon, the anti-rebel leader. Unbong surrendered at the sight of the rebels. Remaining Jibgangso include Daechang High School in
Yecheon
Yecheon County is a county in the province of North Gyeongsang, South Korea. It is 661 km2 in area, and in 2004 had a population of 52,311. It has lost over 2/3 of its inhabitants since the mid-1960s. It consists of twelve administrative d ...
, Jinnam Office in
Yeosu
Yeosu (; ''Yeosu-si''), historically also Yosu, and known to the Japanese as Reisui during the period when Korea was under Japanese rule, is a city located on the southern coast of the Korean Peninsula in South Jeolla Province, South Korea and ...
, Geumseong Office in
Naju
Naju () is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea.
The capital of South Jeolla was located at Naju until it was moved to Gwangju in 1895. The name Jeolla actually originates from the first character of Jeonju () and the first character of Na ...
, Mujang Hall in Mujang (preserved by Mujang magistrates as a historical relic), and Yeosan Office in Yeosan (now a town hall).
The Jeobju of the town and his assistant, the Jeobsa, administered a ''Jibgangso'' agency. Under the Jeobju were the Seogi, the Seongchal, the Jibsa, the Posa, and the Dongmong. For deciding on matters, there was a council, with the Jeobjang and Jeobsa at its head, who voted on town matters. Yi Yihwa sees this as rudimentary democracy.
Among the Seogi, Seongchal, the Jibsa, and the Dongmong, the Seogi were scribes who kept records of the activities and decisions of the ''Jibgangso''. They also reprinted orders and publications from the rebel leaders, and displayed them on marketplaces and gave them to the people. Most Seogi were progressive Yangban, as the scribes had to have literacy.
Meanwhile, the Seongchal were town police, who administered the law and reported corrupt officials or
Yangban
The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil servants and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats ...
to the Dongmong and Posa. Most Seongchal were killed in the Second Revolt.
Dongmong were young men who arrested, imprisoned, or even flogged those reported by the Seongchal. They also had a powerful hatred for
Yangban
The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil servants and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats ...
, often castrating them and using Yangban women to light candles or pour water. Dongmong also led to a curious marriage practice called 'three-day marriage'. Dongmong, searching for partners, hung white scarves on the door of a house of a Yangban who had an unmarried daughter. This meant that the daughter had to marry the Dongmong. To escape the forced marriage, fathers often found another suitable young man and made the daughter marry him within three days in secret. By November, three-day marriage had become so prevalent that the only virgins left were girls under fourteen years of age. Meanwhile, the Posa were mostly tiger hunters who served effectively as soldiers, cooperating with the Seongchal and Dongmong to fight against Yangban resistance.
The rebels referred to their cause as the ''Dongdo'' (another name for 'Donghak') and to their army as the ''Dongdo Euibyeong'', the "Righteous army of Donghak". Rebels called themselves 'Hajeob', after the lowest Donghak initiate, and called any other person, even children, 'Jeobjang', a rendering of Jeobju.
The Second Revolt
While the
First Sino-Japanese War
The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a conflict between China and Japan primarily over influence in Korea. After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the po ...
raged on, Japanese troops
occupied Seoul and
made a pro-Japanese government there. Before the
Battle of Pyongyang, Jeon's strategy seems to have been that he would crush the fleeing Japanese from the south while the Chinese soldiers chased them from the north. However, his prediction proved wrong, with a major Chinese defeat in
Pyongyang
Pyongyang (, , ) is the capital and largest city of North Korea, where it is known as the "Capital of the Revolution". Pyongyang is located on the Taedong River about upstream from its mouth on the Yellow Sea. According to the 2008 populatio ...
. Jeon decided that he should defeat the Japanese by taking control of Korea and severing Japanese supply lines. However, he knew he would have to get the support of the Northern Jeob, who commanded all Donghak outside ''Jibgangso''-controlled areas.
Choe Sihyeong was staunchly anti-rebel, as he feared that a large-scale rebellion based on the Donghak religion would end with the destruction of Donghak. To escape persecution, the Northern Jeob had to fight against the largely Southern Jeob rebels. Here is an excerpt of his words:
The government does not know the difference between medicine (Northern) and poison (Southern). They will burn both the stones (Southern) and the jade (Northern)... Hence, we must prove our allegiance to the king by conquering the South.
On September 14, Northern and Southern leaders gathered in Samrye. It is said that Jeon rode a white horse in this meeting. The Northern flags said 'Conquer the South', while Southern ones said 'Conquer the Foreigners' or 'Protect the Nation'. After a month of negotiations, on October 12, Choe Sihyeong finally cried out to the Northern Jeob: "Shall we die while seated?".
The Northern leader Son Byeongheui led 10,000–100,000 Northern Jeob followers as the General of the Northern Jeob. Jeon also led 12,000–100,000 Southerners as the General of the Southern Jeob (most recent estimates give a total army of about 50,000) However, Kim Kaenam was not present; he was leading 5,000 rebels in an attack of
Cheongju
Cheongju () is the capital and largest List of cities in South Korea, city of North Chungcheong Province in South Korea.
History
Cheongju has been an important provincial town since ancient times. In the Cheongju Mountains, specifically in the ...
. Together, they marched north to Gongju, the capital of
Chungcheong Province
Chungcheong (''Chungcheong-do''; ) was one of the Eight Provinces (Korea), eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was located at Gongju, which had been the ...
. As they marched, Jeon said:
We shall not eat dog or chicken. The meat of a dog weakens and maddens us, and we are born from the power of Mount Gyeryong
Gyeryongsan, a mountain in Chungcheongnam-do, South Korea. It lies at the meeting of the boundaries of several cities: Gongju, Gyeryong, Nonsan, and Daejeon. It has been traditionally regarded as a sacred mountain, with the most qi of any i ...
, the Rooster Dragon mountain. Eating chicken shall weaken that power.
Although the army had started with 200,000 rebels, when they camped at Non Stream, 12 kilometers south of Gongju, the army was 220,000; peasants had joined them as they marched. There were also 50
Chinese
Chinese can refer to:
* Something related to China
* Chinese people, people of Chinese nationality, citizenship, and/or ethnicity
**''Zhonghua minzu'', the supra-ethnic concept of the Chinese nation
** List of ethnic groups in China, people of ...
soldiers, who had fled from the
Sino-Japanese War. Inside the Fortress of Gongju were perhaps 3,000 governmental forces led by Gu Sangjo, Seong Hayeong, Jang Yongjin, and Yi Gidong, and some 400 Japanese soldiers led by Colonel Moriya.
The Donghak army's strategy was to surround Gongju from
Buyeo
Buyeo or Puyŏ ( Korean: 부여; Korean pronunciation: u.jʌ or 扶餘 ''Fúyú''), also rendered as Fuyu, was an ancient kingdom that was centered in northern Manchuria in modern-day northeast China. It is sometimes considered a Korea ...
and
Nonsan
Nonsan () is a city in South Chungcheong Province, South Korea. It is located at . The origin of Nonsan's geographical names is said to have come from the small garden " Nolmoe, " which rises in the middle of farming fields, where rice paddies ...
. On October 23, a rebel battalion took Yiyin and Hyopyo, four kilometers south of Gongju.
On October 24 and 25, the Battle of Ung Pass, or Ungchi, occurred between rebels and a coalition army of Japanese soldiers, governmental forces, and anti-rebel guerrillas. Ungchi was a pass that led straight to Gongju, and a crucial location for the rebels. However, the rebels were not able to take Ungchi. Most were armed with only bows and arrows, spears, swords and seventeenth-century style muskets, which could not defeat the superior firepower of the coalition. The Northern Jeob experienced severe casualties in Ungchi, because they lacked proper training in war.
The rebels retreated south to Nonsan. Jeon and Son decided that they would capture Gongju through a different pass; Ugeum Pass, or Ugeumchi.
On November 8, two battalions lured governmental forces, so that the major rebel forces would not meet a large governmental army in Ugeumchi. At 3:00 in the afternoon, the rebels concentrated the governmental forces in Yiyin and Hyopyo, where 10,000 rebels were. The other 200,000 rebels were crossing Ugeumchi. However, they encountered a
Japanese
Japanese may refer to:
* Something from or related to Japan, an island country in East Asia
* Japanese language, spoken mainly in Japan
* Japanese people, the ethnic group that identifies with Japan through ancestry or culture
** Japanese diaspor ...
battalion of 280 soldiers. The Japanese gathered the Korean forces into Ugeumchi. After night passed, the two armies clashed in Ugeumchi in the dawn of November 9.
Jeon placed his army so that the rebels stretched sixteen kilometers, from Panchi to Mount Bonghwang. Jeon was at the center of this line, surrounded by flags and riding on his white horse. The government forces defended the sides (Hyopyo, Ungchi, Mount Bonghwang), while the Japanese were stationed in Ugeumchi proper. At 10:00 in the morning, the rebels charged at Ugeumchi.
Because of their weak weapons, they were unable to cross Ugeumchi. The Japanese used cannons and rifles, and had proper military training. Although small groups of rebels crossed the 'death line' more than forty times, they were all shot down. After one charge at the Japanese, only 10,000 of the original 200,000 rebels were left. After the following charge, there were 3,000 rebels left. When the rebels finally retreated on November 10, only 500 rebels out of an army of 200,000 remained.
Meanwhile, in Hyopyo, the 10,000 rebels captured various peaks, but whenever the governmental forces seemed to break, they were instantly reinforced by the Japanese. By November 10, both armies retreated to Nonsan. The
Battle of Ugeumchi
The Battle of Ugeumchi was a decisive battle during the Donghak Peasant Revolution. Fought between the Donghak Korean peasants and the combined Japanese-Joseon Army, resulted in the decline of the Donghak Rebellion and the growth of Japanese Impe ...
was over. The battle was expressed by a spectator of the battle:
And we finally destroyed the thieving raiders... It was as if the stars themselves were falling from the sky, and the autumn leaves were being scattered on the lands.
Jeon led the 500 remainder south into Taein, the rebel center. There, he gathered an army of 8,000 rebels. On November 25, the Japanese caught up with the rebels, camped in Mount Gumi. Despite rebel strategic superiority, the Japanese firepower annihilated both the rebels and the city of Taein. A historian, Park Eunsik, recorded that there was "nothing left in Taein for 40 kilometers". 40 civilian houses, along with perhaps 400 rebels, were killed.
After the Battle of Taein, on November 28, 1894, Jeon formally dissolved the Donghak Army. The rebels cried: "We thought Jeon Nokdu (Jeon's nickname) would save us, but now we are all going to die". Jeon answered: "War is a game of luck. Why is it that you blame me". He then dressed up as a peasant and headed east.
Battles outside the main front
Jeolla
Jeolla Province
Jeolla Province (, ) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in today Southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and Gwangju Metropolitan City as wel ...
was the revolution's center, and were completely seized by the rebels. They formed the core of the Anti-Japanese Frontier, and often aided
Gyeongsang and
Chungcheong
Chungcheong (''Chungcheong-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was located at Gongju, which had been the capital of the kingdom o ...
rebels. Kim Inbae of
Gwangyang
Gwangyang () is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. Gwangyang city is the home of POSCO's Gwangyang Steel Works, the largest facility of its kind in the world.
The city is also home to K League Classic football side Jeonnam Dragons.
Gw ...
and Yi Bangeon of
Jangheung
Jangheung County (''Jangheung-gun'') is a county in South Jeolla Province, South Korea.
Slow city
In 2007 Jangheung was designated as a slow city. It was the first slow city designation in Asia.
Spot for filming
''Festival'' (1996) was filmed ...
formed the core of
South Jeolla
South Jeolla Province (; ''Jeollanam-do''; ), also known as Jeonnam, is a province of South Korea. South Jeolla has a population of 1,902,324 (2014) and has a geographic area of located in the Honam region at the southwestern tip of the Korean ...
rebels.
Namwon and Unbong
Namwon
Namwon (; ''Namwon-si'') is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. Namwon is about 50 minutes from the provincial capital of Jeonju, which is almost three hours away from Seoul. The official city flower is Royal Azalea () while the city tr ...
and
Unbong were ruled by Kim Gaenam's rebels. However, Kim Gaenam had gone to attack
Cheongju
Cheongju () is the capital and largest List of cities in South Korea, city of North Chungcheong Province in South Korea.
History
Cheongju has been an important provincial town since ancient times. In the Cheongju Mountains, specifically in the ...
far to the north, and with his absence, the governmental soldiers attacked Namwon. On November 13, the rebels were driven away from the outskirts of Namwon in a small battle. The 3,000 rebels fled to Namwon Fortress. Jo Byeongho, the governmental leader, led 2,000 soldiers armed with modern weapons to besiege Namwon. Although the fortress was bombed and shelled, the rebels did not come out. Finally, the governmental troops stacked hay around the east, west, and south walls, and burned the hay. The wooden doors burned along, and the rebels fled through the north door. Hundreds of rebels were killed in the Siege of Namwon.
Jindo
In
Jindo, the third largest island of Korea (after
Jeju
Jeju may refer to:
* Jeju Island (Jejudo), an island near South Korea
* Jeju Province (formerly transliterated Cheju), a province of South Korea comprising Jejudo
**Jeju City, the biggest city on Jejudo
**Jeju dog, a dog native to Jejudo
** Jeju l ...
and
Geoje
Geoje ( Hangeul: ; Hanja: 巨濟; ) is a city located in South Gyeongsang province, just off the coast of the port city of Busan, South Korea. Daewoo Shipbuilding & Marine Engineering (former Daewoo Shipyard) in Okpo and Samsung Heavy Industries ...
), Na Chihyeon of
Naju
Naju () is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea.
The capital of South Jeolla was located at Naju until it was moved to Gwangju in 1895. The name Jeolla actually originates from the first character of Jeonju () and the first character of Na ...
converted the population to Donghak in January 1892. After the fall of Jeonju Fortress, the Jindo magistrate Yi Heuiseung (who, like Jo, built two monuments to himself) fled. However, Confucian scholars maintained order in the island through an army called Suseonggun.
In July, Son Haenggwon assaulted Susseonggun bases, taking matchlock rifles, swords, bullets, gunpowder, and tridents. At a similar time, Park Jungjin attacked the Suseonggun at Shimijang village. He was killed, and his daughter captured; descendants destroyed the family tree and burned down the house.
After arrivals of new officials, the Jindo rebels joined the Naju rebels. Most were captured and sent back to
Jindo. On October 10, 1,322 soldiers, composed mainly of slaves and lower officials, were sent to defend Jindo against possible rebel attacks.
In December, rebels who had
fought under Yi Bangeon hid into Jindo after the Battle of Seokdae Fields. However, the rebels had lost all military power, and were captured and imprisoned. On December 27, Japanese soldiers executed fifty rebels. Cheondoism remained in Jindo until the 1950s.
Gyeongsang
Gyeongsang Province had a strong Confucian influence, and the casualties of Yi Pilje's Revolt in 1871 were still fresh. It took until August for Gyeongsang rebels to begin revolting. Suppression of revolts were an organized effort, with ''Toposa'' officials specializing in anti-rebel campaigns.
Jinju
The forces of the Southwest coasts of Korea were special in that the forces of Jeolla and Gyeongsang Provinces cooperated to attack
Jinju Fortress. They are collectively termed under the name 'Jinju Rebels'.
On May 7, Kim Inbae, the Great Jeobju of Geumgu, built a ''Jibgangso'' in
Suncheon
Suncheon () (''Suncheon-si'') is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. It is a scenic agricultural and industrial city of around 250,000 people near Suncheon Bay. It is located in the southeastern corner of Jeollanam-do, just over an hour ...
,
Jeolla Province
Jeolla Province (, ) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in today Southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and Gwangju Metropolitan City as wel ...
. On September 1, Kim crossed the Gyeongsang-Jeolla boundary. His strategy was to charge through the southern coastline to
Busan
Busan (), officially known as is South Korea's most populous city after Seoul, with a population of over 3.4 million inhabitants. Formerly romanized as Pusan, it is the economic, cultural and educational center of southeastern South Korea, w ...
, and thus grasp the Japanese-Korean borderline.
Meanwhile, Hadong and Jinju, which were Kim's target, were experiencing rebel activities. Hadong rebels were chased west by the government, joining Kim Inbae. With the guidance of the Hadong rebels, Kim Inbae captured Hadong on September 7.
In Jinju, the leadership recruited rebels by sending out public documents in major markets. On September 8, 1894, 7,000 rebels gathered in Sugok Market and established the Chungyeong Daedoso, a center of rebel activities. By September 17, a joint army of Suncheon and Jinju rebels had captured Jinju fortress.
The rebels held flags signaling their own Po and Jeob, and spread manifestos titled ''To the People of the Towns of Gyeongsang'' throughout nearby villages. The manifesto said the following.
* The state is the people, and the people are the state.
* We have had a council in
Jinju in order to punish the Japanese invasion.
* All believers in Donghak must rise up and punish corrupt officials who support the
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
ese.
* Report anti-rebel armies to the Chunggyeong Daedoso.
In response to the fall of Jinju Fortress, the government sent Ji Seokyeong as ''Toposa'' of Jinju, a government official who specialized in the suppression of Donghak revolutions.
On October 10, 400 rebels gathered in Mount Geumo, a few kilometers west of Jinju, where they were ambushed by Japanese forces. Although the rebels lost more than seventy men in the consequent Battle of Mount Geumo, the rebels still held Jinju Fortress.
On October 14, 5,000 rebels defended Mount Goseong Fortress against the Japanese. The rebels, using the fortress, fought fiercely against Colonel Suzuki's Japanese battalion, but were ultimately defeated by Japanese firepower. 187 rebels were killed, causing Mount Goseong to be called Mount Gosireong, after the sound that a decomposing corpse makes when it rains. The remnants of the rebels fled to
Mount Jiri
Jirisan is a mountain located in the southern region of South Korea. It is the second-tallest mountain in South Korea after Jeju Island's Hallasan, and the tallest mountain in mainland South Korea.
The 1915m-high mountain is located in Jiri ...
, where they became the
Righteous Army
Righteous armies, sometimes called irregular armies or militias, are informal civilian militias that have appeared several times in Korean history, when the national armies were in need of assistance.
The first righteous armies emerged during th ...
.
Chungcheong
Chungcheong rebels were under the command of Son Byeongheui, who led the Northern Jeob into battle at
Ugeumchi. After defeat at Ugeumchi, Son continued the rebellion until the Battle of Jonggok, December 18. Chungcheong was the location of the December battles.
Cheongju
On October 9, before the Council of Samrye had reached its conclusion, there was a minor skirmish in
Daejeon
Daejeon () is South Korea's fifth-largest metropolis, with a population of 1.5 million as of 2019. Located in the central-west region of South Korea alongside forested hills and the Geum River, the city is known both for its technology and ...
, at the time a small village called Hanbat, between rebels and governmental forces. This came to be called the Daejeon Massacre. 78 governmental soldiers were given alcohol by rebels, then killed while drunk.
Meanwhile, the city of Cheongju was the Donghak division commanded by the Great Jeobju, Son Cheonmin. Kim Gaenam and Son Cheonmin cooperated to attack Cheongju in the Battle of Cheongju, December 9, 1894. Because Kim did not fight at Ugeumchi, his army of 25,000 was still strong.
When Jeon and Son gathered the rebel forces in Samrye, Kim did not cooperate. He began his own attack only after the
Battle of Ugeumchi
The Battle of Ugeumchi was a decisive battle during the Donghak Peasant Revolution. Fought between the Donghak Korean peasants and the combined Japanese-Joseon Army, resulted in the decline of the Donghak Rebellion and the growth of Japanese Impe ...
, and by December 9 reached Cheongju Fortress.
Kim's opponent was Kuwabara Eiziro and his Japanese battalion, along with governmental troops with little morale. Kim's 15,000 men attacked from south, while Son Cheonmin's 10,000 men attacked from the north. The defenders of Cheongju lacked morale due to the Daejeon Massacre, and Kim nearly broke through the south door. Eiziro suddenly assaulted the rebels, and Kim retreated to Muneui.
200 rebels were killed in the Battle of Cheongju. The rebels also lost large amounts of weaponry, including many rebel banners, thousands of bows and arrows, 140 rifles, 2,000 flintlock muskets, 150 kilograms of gunpowder, 2 cannons, and 50 horses.
After the Battle of Cheongju, Kim went south to Muneui, but were defeated once more. He went in hiding, just as Jeon Bongjun did.
Northern Chungcheong
Although Choe Sihyeong had banned rebel activities among the Northern Jeob during the spring of 1894, many Chungcheong rebels were Northern Jeob. By March 22, rebels of Hoenggang, Yeongdeung, Cheongsan,
Boeun
Boeun County (''Boeun-gun'') is a county in North Chungcheong Province, South Korea.
History
Boeun ( literally "offering gratitude" or "thanksgiving"), was a South Korean town named in 1406 by a remorseful King Taejong, who felt relieved that he ...
,
Okcheon
Okcheon County (''Okcheon-gun'') is a county in North Chungcheong Province, South Korea.
Climate
Okcheon has a humid continental climate (Köppen: ''Dwa''), but can be considered a borderline humid subtropical climate (Köppen: ''Cwa'') using the ...
, Jinjam, Muneui,
Goesan
Goesan County (''Goesan-gun'') is a Administrative divisions of South Korea, county in North Chungcheong Province, South Korea.
Demographics
As of 2021, Goesan-gun has a population of about 40,000 people. The area has been affected strongly by th ...
, and Yeongpung were already giving the wealth of the rich to the poor, and beat and castrated corrupt
Yangban
The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil servants and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats ...
. However, the Chungju rebels temporarily stopped activities due to the beginning of the
Sino-Japanese War.
The
Battle of Pungdo
The Battle of Pungdo or Feng-tao (Japanese: ) was the first naval battle of the First Sino-Japanese War. It took place on 25 July 1894 off Asan, Chungcheongnam-do, Korea, between cruisers of the Imperial Japanese Navy and components of the Chines ...
and the
Battle of Seonghwan
The Battle of Seonghwan () was the first major land battle of the First Sino-Japanese War. It took place on 29 July 1894 at the hamlet of Seonghwan, outside of Cheonan, Chungcheongnam-do Korea between the forces of Meiji Japan and Qing China. ...
were both fought in
Chungcheong Province
Chungcheong (''Chungcheong-do''; ) was one of the Eight Provinces (Korea), eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was located at Gongju, which had been the ...
, and the war sparked anti-Japanese sentiment among the former rebels. In July, 1,000 rebels wandered through various towns, building earthen fortresses in preparation for a Japanese invasion of
Chungcheong
Chungcheong (''Chungcheong-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was located at Gongju, which had been the capital of the kingdom o ...
. The rebels took weaponry from the governmental storages and trained themselves. In August, there was a small battle between the Northern and the Southern Jeob.
On October 12, Choe Sihyeong ordered the Northern Jeob to revolt. The rebels of Northern Chungcheong organized under the Jeob and Po, and began active revolts.
There were more than a hundred battles that took place in
Northern Chungcheong
North Chungcheong Province ( ko, 충청북도, ''Chungcheongbuk-do''), also known as Chungbuk, is a Administrative divisions of South Korea, province of South Korea. North Chungcheong has a population of 1,578,934 (2014) and has a geographic area ...
in this period. The Gwandong Po won against a Japanese battalion in the Battle of Goesan under the leadership of Sim Songhak. The rebels then reached Boeun, thus severing all direct roads between
Seoul
Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) as stated iArticle 103 ...
and
Jeolla
Jeolla Province (, ) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in today Southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and Gwangju Metropolitan City as wel ...
. The revolt flared even greater when Son Byeongheui joined the
Northern Chungcheong
North Chungcheong Province ( ko, 충청북도, ''Chungcheongbuk-do''), also known as Chungbuk, is a Administrative divisions of South Korea, province of South Korea. North Chungcheong has a population of 1,578,934 (2014) and has a geographic area ...
rebels. Survivors among the Battle of Taein joined the rebels as well.
On December 18, 2,600 rebel forces gathered in Jonggok. The rebels included the great Northern leader Son Byeonghui, whose family lived near Jonggok, and the patriarch of Donghak, Choe Sihyeong. Japanese sources report that the rebels were cooking meals when the Japanese attacked them. Because of the surprise attack, the rebels were not able to put up a suitable defense, leading to 2,500 rebels out of 2,600 being killed. (Some scholars prefer the term Jonggok Massacre.) Both Choe and Son survived, but fled towards the south. Minor skirmishes continued in this region until December 28.
Battle of Mount Seseong
The rebels of
Cheonan
Cheonan (; 천안시, ''Cheonan-si''), also spelled Ch'ŏnan, is a city in South Chungcheong, South Korea.
Cheonan has a population of 666,417 (2018), making it the most-populous city or county in South Chungcheong, and the third most-populous ci ...
,
Hongseong
Hongseong (''Hongseong-gun'') is a county in South Korea, and the capital of South Chungcheong Province. The current governor is Yeoung Lock Lee. The original name of the city is ''Hongju''.
Symbols
* The flag represents the Joyang Gate along wi ...
, and northwestern Chungcheong were defeated in the Battle of Mount Seseong. This battle was also the key to Jeon Bongjun's plan to capture
Seoul
Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) as stated iArticle 103 ...
.
In August, 1,500 rebels revolted in
Cheonan
Cheonan (; 천안시, ''Cheonan-si''), also spelled Ch'ŏnan, is a city in South Chungcheong, South Korea.
Cheonan has a population of 666,417 (2018), making it the most-populous city or county in South Chungcheong, and the third most-populous ci ...
, and took governmental weapons. After organizing their army in Mount Soto, the rebels camped in Mount Seseong with their newfound weaponry. Mount Seseong was more of a low hill, 22 meters high, defended by a low wall, which was in use since the
Proto-Three Kingdoms Age. The rebel leaders were Kim Yongheui, Kim Hwaseong, Kim Seongji, Kim Bokyong, Kim Yeongu, and Won Keumok.
On November 18, two Japanese platoons were located in the northern slopes, another platoon to the northeast, and another to the southeast. At dawn, the southeast platoon ambushed the rebels, who resisted for two hours, aided by their superior knowledge of the terrain. However, they were forced to retreat to the west, where they were ambushed again by the two northern platoons.
370 rebels were killed, 770 were wounded, and 17 were captured. The rebels also lost 140 guns, 2 trumpets, 228 spears, 26,500 Chinese bullets, 30 flags, 226 sacks of rice, and 13 sacks of barley. Kim Bokyong was captured and executed on the spot, and the other leaders were executed on November 24 and 27. The hill was known as Mount Siseong, meaning 'Mountain washed with blood'.
Gyeonggi
Because
Gyeonggi
Gyeonggi-do (, ) is the most populous province in South Korea. Its name, ''Gyeonggi'', means "京 (the capital) and 畿 (the surrounding area)". Thus, ''Gyeonggi-do'' can be translated as "Seoul and the surrounding areas of Seoul". Seoul, the na ...
was very close to Seoul, rebel activities in Gyeonggi were few. The largest Gyeonggi rebel groups, numbering 1,000 rebels, were in
Yicheon,
Yeoju
Yeoju () is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea. Yeoju was a county but was raised to the status of a city in September 2013. Together with the neighboring city of Icheon, it is known as a major center of contemporary South Korean ceramics, ...
,
Anseong
Anseong () is a city in Gyeonggi Province, South Korea, south of Seoul. Its geographical location is .
Anseong promotes itself as "The City of Masters". It is known for producing brassware and arts and crafts. From late spring to fall, Anseong h ...
, and other parts of Southeastern Gyeonggi. The Gyeonggi rebels retreated south to
Chungcheong
Chungcheong (''Chungcheong-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was located at Gongju, which had been the capital of the kingdom o ...
, joining the rebels of
Northern Chungcheong
North Chungcheong Province ( ko, 충청북도, ''Chungcheongbuk-do''), also known as Chungbuk, is a Administrative divisions of South Korea, province of South Korea. North Chungcheong has a population of 1,578,934 (2014) and has a geographic area ...
. Most were killed in the Battle of Jonggok (see above).
Gangwon
Gangwon rebels can be divided into two groups: the rebels of
Gangneung
Gangneung () is a municipal city in the province of Gangwon-do, on the east coast of South Korea. It has a population of 213,658 (as of 2017).Gangneung City (2003)Population & Households. Retrieved January 14, 2006. Gangneung is the economic ...
and the rebels of
Hoengseong
Hoengseong County is a county in Gangwon Province, South Korea.
The roots of ''Codonopsis lanceolata'' ( ko, deodeok, script=Latn), a bonnet bellflower species, play an important role in local agriculture.
The Korean Minjok Leadership Academy, a ...
and
Wonju
Wonju () is the most populous city in Gangwon Province, South Korea. The city is located approximately east of Seoul. Wonju was the site of three crucial battles during the Korean War.
Geography
Wonju sits at the southwestern corner of Gangw ...
. Rebels from
Northern Chungcheong
North Chungcheong Province ( ko, 충청북도, ''Chungcheongbuk-do''), also known as Chungbuk, is a Administrative divisions of South Korea, province of South Korea. North Chungcheong has a population of 1,578,934 (2014) and has a geographic area ...
or
Gyeonggi
Gyeonggi-do (, ) is the most populous province in South Korea. Its name, ''Gyeonggi'', means "京 (the capital) and 畿 (the surrounding area)". Thus, ''Gyeonggi-do'' can be translated as "Seoul and the surrounding areas of Seoul". Seoul, the na ...
occasionally crossed into
Wonju
Wonju () is the most populous city in Gangwon Province, South Korea. The city is located approximately east of Seoul. Wonju was the site of three crucial battles during the Korean War.
Geography
Wonju sits at the southwestern corner of Gangw ...
. Gangwon rebels were especially marked by guerrilla warfare.
Gangneung and Pyeongchang
In these regions, rebels would occupy Gangneung, then flee to mountainous locations such as
Pyeongchang
Pyeongchang (; in full, ''Pyeongchang-gun'' ; ) is a county in the province of Gangwon-do, South Korea, located in the Taebaek Mountains region. It is home to several Buddhist temples, including Woljeongsa. It is about east southeast of Seou ...
, then return to
Gangneung
Gangneung () is a municipal city in the province of Gangwon-do, on the east coast of South Korea. It has a population of 213,658 (as of 2017).Gangneung City (2003)Population & Households. Retrieved January 14, 2006. Gangneung is the economic ...
.
In September, more than 1,000 rebels attacked
Gangneung
Gangneung () is a municipal city in the province of Gangwon-do, on the east coast of South Korea. It has a population of 213,658 (as of 2017).Gangneung City (2003)Population & Households. Retrieved January 14, 2006. Gangneung is the economic ...
, which lacked defenses. The rebels gave one sack of rice to each peasant by taking the wealth of the rich, and built strongholds in most marketplaces. The rebels formed their own court, lowered taxes, and punished corrupt
Yangban
The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil servants and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats ...
and rich
Sangmin
The ''sangmin'' () were the common people of Joseon-era Korea.
Etymology
A more polite but less accurate name for the ''sangmin'' is "''yangmin''" ().
History
The ''sangmin'' consisted of peasants, heavy laborers, fishermen, some craftsmen an ...
.
On September 7, an anti-rebel battalion led by Yi Hoewon assaulted the sleeping rebels in the rainy dawn. 20 rebels were killed, and Yi's forces took 7 guns, 157 spears, and 2 horses. The rebels passed the Daegwanryeong Pass into Pyeongchang.
By late September, the rebels had reorganized and recaptured
Gangneung
Gangneung () is a municipal city in the province of Gangwon-do, on the east coast of South Korea. It has a population of 213,658 (as of 2017).Gangneung City (2003)Population & Households. Retrieved January 14, 2006. Gangneung is the economic ...
. they also occupied
Pyeongchang
Pyeongchang (; in full, ''Pyeongchang-gun'' ; ) is a county in the province of Gangwon-do, South Korea, located in the Taebaek Mountains region. It is home to several Buddhist temples, including Woljeongsa. It is about east southeast of Seou ...
,
Yeongweol, and
Jeongseon
Jeongseon (''Jeongseon-gun'') is a county in the province of Gangwon-do, South Korea. It is famous as the hometown of "Jeongseon Arirang," a traditional Korean folksong. It is also the hometown of actor Won Bin and footballer Seol Ki-hyeon.
Hi ...
. In response, the Japanese army sent Captain Ishimori against the Gangneung rebels on November 3. On November 5, 10,000 rebels had a two-hour-long battle against Ishimori's troops, but were ultimately defeated. The rebels fled to
Jeongseon
Jeongseon (''Jeongseon-gun'') is a county in the province of Gangwon-do, South Korea. It is famous as the hometown of "Jeongseon Arirang," a traditional Korean folksong. It is also the hometown of actor Won Bin and footballer Seol Ki-hyeon.
Hi ...
.
On November 6, the governmental troops killed 10 rebels in Jeongseon and burned down 70 houses. The rebels again fled to
Pyeongchang
Pyeongchang (; in full, ''Pyeongchang-gun'' ; ) is a county in the province of Gangwon-do, South Korea, located in the Taebaek Mountains region. It is home to several Buddhist temples, including Woljeongsa. It is about east southeast of Seou ...
.
Ishimori fought against 3,000 rebels in Pyeongchang on December 1, 1894. The rebels scattered after an hour of battle. 70 rebels were instantly killed, 30 died from their wounds, and 10 prisoners were killed for attempted rebellion. The Gangneung rebels ceased to exist after this battle.
Hoengseong, Wonju, and Hongcheon
Rebels of these regions were mostly guerrillas in a mountainous terrain. The rebel leader was the legendary Cha Giseok, the Great Jeobju of the
Gwandong Region. He led 1,000 rebels, who punished corrupt
Yangban
The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil servants and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats ...
and collected taxes from merchants. It is said that Cha killed hundreds of
Yangban
The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil servants and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats ...
.
On October 13, Cha attacked Dongchang, where the taxes collected in Gangwon were brought to Seoul by boat. He burned down Dongchang and gave the taxes to the peasants. The magistrate of Hongcheon reports that after the destruction of Dongchang, more and more people joined Cha's army.
The government asked Maeng Yeongjae, a Confucian scholar, to conquer Cha's 'crowd of roving thieves'. Maeng, who was suppressing the rebels of
Yicheon at the time, gladly obliged. On October 21, Maeng and Cha battled in the Jangya Fields, in which more than 30 rebels were killed. The rebels fled to Seoseok, into a pass called 'Seonang Pass'. It was so named because there was an
altar
An altar is a table or platform for the presentation of religious offerings, for sacrifices, or for other ritualistic purposes. Altars are found at shrines, temples, churches, and other places of worship. They are used particularly in paga ...
to the deity
Seonangshin in the pass.
On October 22, 2,000 rebels were killed in the consequent Battle of Jajak Pass, the largest battle in
Gangwon Province before the Korean War. The rebels lacked guns, and they used birch branches as weapons. They also lacked pots, and cooked rice over cattle hide. Because of the narrowness of the pass, the rebels were crowded, and it was easy for Maeng's troops to fire into the camp and kill rebels. Maeng himself reports that "it was impossible to see how many died", but descendants have given an estimate of 1,800~2,000. Descendants also report that the battle continued for three or four days. The Seonang Pass was renamed Jajak Pass, because the blood made a 'Jajak' sound as it rolled down the pass.
On October 26, the survivors, including Cha, regathered. On November 11, they began the Battle of Mount Odae, in which Maeng's soldiers surrounded Mount Odae and began to climb it and defeat the rebels inside. 100 rebels were killed, and 40 houses were burned. Cha was captured on November 14, and beheaded for treason in
Chuncheon
Chuncheon (; ; formerly romanized as Chunchŏn; literally ''spring river'') is the capital of Gangwon Province in South Korea. The city lies in the north of the county, located in a basin formed by the Soyang River and Han River. There are some ...
.
Hwanghae
In 1893, the Joseon Dynasty banned gold mining in
Hwanghae Province
Hwanghae Province (''Hwanghae-do'' ) was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon era. Hwanghae was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Haeju. The regional name for the province was Haeseo.
History
In 139 ...
. Although Hwanghae leaders, such as
Kim Gu
Kim Gu (, ; August 29, 1876 – June 26, 1949), also known by his pen name Baekbeom (백범; ), was a Korean statesman. He was the sixth, ninth, and president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea; a leader of the Korean indepen ...
the 'Baby Jeobju' (Kim Gu was eighteen at the time, compared to the 40-year-old Jeon Bongjun or the 32-year-old Son Byeongheui), were believers in Donghak, most of the rebels were gold miners. Lieutenant Suzuku classified Hwanghae rebels in three ways:
# True Donghak, "who mutter incantations and believe that their faith shall cure diseases, bring wealth, and lengthen life"
# Temporary Donghak, "who do not believe the teachings... but join the Donghak religion"
# False Donghak, "those... who hate foreigners... are suppressed by local magistrates, suffer from inflation, or can no longer mine for gold. Most are gold miners, and that is because... gold mining was banned last year, and... they no longer have money, and they wish for revenge".
Haeju
Haeju
Haeju () is a city located in South Hwanghae Province near Haeju Bay in North Korea. It is the administrative centre of South Hwanghae Province. As of 2008, the population of the city is estimated to be 273,300. At the beginning of the 20th century ...
was one of the two provincial capitals to fall to the rebels (the other being
Jeonju
Jeonju () is the 16th largest city in South Korea and the capital of North Jeolla Province. It is both urban and rural due to the closeness of Wanju County which almost entirely surrounds Jeonju (Wanju County has many residents who work in Jeonju) ...
). The defeat of the Haeju rebels are documented in Lieutenant Suzuku's ''Conquest of the Donghak of Hwaghae''.
By November 27, the rebels had captured most of the Hwanghae coast, including Haeju, without a major battle. However, in the dawn of November 27, 400 rebels camped on Pyeongsan were assaulted by governmental forces, and fled south to Nucheon. Knowing that the Japanese and the government troops were chasing them, they hurriedly fled Nucheon as well. Suzuku captured many Donghak food supplies in Nucheon, including "hundreds of sacks of millet".
On November 29, Suzuku captured the town of Gajichon. However, there were no men in Gajichon. When the women of Gajichon were interrogated, they revealed that all grown men had been ordered to go to the town of
Onjeong. Suzuku's soldiers burned four sacks of rice cakes in Gajichon.
The Japanese reached Onjeong, only to find it empty. The magistrate of Onjeong said that the rebels had never come, and that they were to go to Haeju, rather than Onjeong. Haeju, too, was completely empty. The governor of
Hwanghae
Hwanghae Province (''Hwanghae-do'' ) was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon era. Hwanghae was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Haeju. The regional name for the province was Haeseo.
History
In 139 ...
said that "every town outside of Haeju is full of thieves... two-thirds of all towns in Hwanghae are full of the Donghak raiders".
With the guidance of the officials of Haeju, the Japanese defeated hundreds of rebels in the hour-long Battle of Gohyeonjang, killing "tens of thieves".
They also captured and beheaded a number of rebels, and burned five houses.
Kim Gu and his rebels sought to reoccupy
Haeju
Haeju () is a city located in South Hwanghae Province near Haeju Bay in North Korea. It is the administrative centre of South Hwanghae Province. As of 2008, the population of the city is estimated to be 273,300. At the beginning of the 20th century ...
, and attacked Japanese scouts at 6:00 am of December 2, 1894. The battle continued until 8:00, when the rebels finally fled. Tens of rebels were again killed, and many were captured. From the captured rebels, Suzuku discovered a manifesto written by Choe Sihyeong, the Donghak patriarch. The manifesto proved that the Haeju rebels were under the command of Choe Sihyeong and the Northern Jeob leaders.
The rebels gathered in Cheongdan, 2.5 kilometers away from Haeju. 7,000 rebels were camped on the east and the south, and 400 were additionally hidden in the pine forests. 10,000 were camped 400 meters away, and 14,000 were camped a kilometer away. Because the rebels lacked rifles and other modern weaponry, they were crushed after three Japanese strikes. However, the rebels did not retreat. Because the Japanese also lacked
ammunition
Ammunition (informally ammo) is the material fired, scattered, dropped, or detonated from any weapon or weapon system. Ammunition is both expendable weapons (e.g., bombs, missiles, grenades, land mines) and the component parts of other weap ...
s due to the large number of rebels, they finally directly charged at the rebels. Although the rebels only had old-fashioned muskets, the superior numbers of the rebels wore out the Japanese soldiers. The rebels fled, and were chased for 600 meters. Minor skirmishes continued until January 1895, and
Kim Gu
Kim Gu (, ; August 29, 1876 – June 26, 1949), also known by his pen name Baekbeom (백범; ), was a Korean statesman. He was the sixth, ninth, and president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea; a leader of the Korean indepen ...
hid in the house of An Taehun, a Catholic and the father of
An Junggeun
Ahn Jung-geun, sometimes spelled Ahn Joong-keun (; 2 September 1879 – 26 March 1910; baptismal name: Thomas Ahn ), was a Korean-independence activist, nationalist, and pan-Asianist. He is famous for assassination of Itō Hirobumi, the first ...
, until 1896.
Pyongan and Hamgyong
Pyongan
Pyeong-an Province (, ) was one of Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Pyeong'an was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Pyeongyang (now Pyongyang, North Korea).
History
Pyeong'an Province was formed in ...
Province had little rebel activity. It suffered extreme casualties in the
First Sino-Japanese War
The First Sino-Japanese War (25 July 1894 – 17 April 1895) was a conflict between China and Japan primarily over influence in Korea. After more than six months of unbroken successes by Japanese land and naval forces and the loss of the po ...
, especially at the
Battle of Pyongyang. There were occasional reports of rebels killing magistrates or attacking Japanese support lines, but such instances were rare. Also, there were only two Jeobju for all of Pyongan, compared with seven for
Hwanghae
Hwanghae Province (''Hwanghae-do'' ) was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon era. Hwanghae was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Haeju. The regional name for the province was Haeseo.
History
In 139 ...
and Gyeonggi, ten for
Gangwon
Gangwon or Kangwŏn may refer to:
* Gangwon Province (historical), the Goryeo, Joseon Dynasty and the Japanese Korean province
* Gangwon Province (South Korea), a province of South Korea, with its capital at Chuncheon. Before the division of Kore ...
, seventeen for
Chungcheong
Chungcheong (''Chungcheong-do''; ) was one of the eight provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Chungcheong was located in the southwest of Korea. The provincial capital was located at Gongju, which had been the capital of the kingdom o ...
, nineteen for
Gyeongsang, and twenty-five for
Jeolla
Jeolla Province (, ) was one of the historical Eight Provinces of Korea during the Kingdom of Joseon in today Southwestern Korea. It consisted of the modern South Korean provinces of North Jeolla, South Jeolla and Gwangju Metropolitan City as wel ...
.
There were minor incidents of rebellions in
Hamgyong
Hamgyong Province () was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. Hamgyŏng was located in the northeast of Korea. The provincial capital was Hamhŭng.
Names
The province was first established as Yonggil ( ko, 영길, , '' ...
:
My grandfather died at thirty-nine. Our home was Haunseung Village, Suha Township in Dancheon County. There and in Samsu, my grandfather caused a Donghak rebellion. But e was defeatedand fled to a village called Neuteulgol where slash-and-burners lived. He hid in a potato container, but two Japanese soldiers opened the lid and ordered him to come out. So he suicided by splitting his stomach open with a dagger.
Fall
![1894년 전봉준 압송 사진](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/1894%EB%85%84_%EC%A0%84%EB%B4%89%EC%A4%80_%EC%95%95%EC%86%A1_%EC%82%AC%EC%A7%84.jpg)
Although Jeon Bongjun officially disbanded the rebel army after the Battle of Taein, many of the other commanders did not disband their respective armies until December. On December 1, Son Hwajung and Choe Gyeongseon disbanded their rebel armies in Gwangju and went in hiding. The same day, the great rebel leader Kim Gaenam was captured. Kim had been betrayed by a friend named Yim Byeongchan, and captured by 80 governmental soldiers who surrounded the house of Kim's brother-in-law. Kim was dragged to Naju. On December 13, he was put to death by beheading, and his corpse was ripped apart in five. The magistrate of Naju ate Kim's intestines and liver.
On December 2,
Jeon Bongjun
Jeon Bong-jun (1855 – 1895) was born in Taein, Jeollabuk-do, Korea. He was a prominent leader of the Donghak Peasant Revolution. Due to his short physical stature, he was called "''Nokdu Janggun''" (녹두장군, General mung bean).
Struggle ...
was also captured in a village called Pinori in modern
Sunchang
Sunchang County (''Sunchang-gun'') is a county in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. It is located in a mountainous region of the province and is connected to the city of Jeonju by a modern double-lane free-way that was completed in 2011.
Suncha ...
(see left), betrayed by his lieutenant Kim Gyeongcheon. Jeon suspected that Kim had betrayed him, and leaped out of the two-story house holding his musket. However, the house was surrounded by governmental soldiers, and he was hit many times with large sticks, causing him to break his legs. Jeon was imprisoned and taken to Seoul. Kim Gyeongcheon went into hiding, because he feared that the rebels would kill him. Trials were not held because the government wanted to put Jeon, Son Hwajung, Choe Gyeongseon, and Kim Deokmyeong to trial all at once. (these four, along with Kim Gaenam, are known as the Five Donghak Generals)
Also by December, the Anti-Japanese Frontier had been pushed down to the southern coast of Korea. On December 7, the Japanese finally killed Kim Inbae, the Great Jeobju of Geumgu who had aided the
Jinju rebels, in the Battle of
Gwangyang
Gwangyang () is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. Gwangyang city is the home of POSCO's Gwangyang Steel Works, the largest facility of its kind in the world.
The city is also home to K League Classic football side Jeonnam Dragons.
Gw ...
Fortress. Kim Inbae's head was tied to a pole and displayed in
Gwangyang
Gwangyang () is a city in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. Gwangyang city is the home of POSCO's Gwangyang Steel Works, the largest facility of its kind in the world.
The city is also home to K League Classic football side Jeonnam Dragons.
Gw ...
. However, in
Jangheung
Jangheung County (''Jangheung-gun'') is a county in South Jeolla Province, South Korea.
Slow city
In 2007 Jangheung was designated as a slow city. It was the first slow city designation in Asia.
Spot for filming
''Festival'' (1996) was filmed ...
, the rebel leader Yi Bangeon captured
Gangjin
Gangjin County (''Gangjin-gun'') is a county in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. Gangjin county proper was established in 1895. The county office is located in Gangjin-eup.
The Gangjin Kiln Sites are a noted area for the production of tradi ...
on December 7. On December 11, Son Hwajung was also captured.
Meanwhile, the Japanese were attacking Yi Bangeon and the
Jangheung
Jangheung County (''Jangheung-gun'') is a county in South Jeolla Province, South Korea.
Slow city
In 2007 Jangheung was designated as a slow city. It was the first slow city designation in Asia.
Spot for filming
''Festival'' (1996) was filmed ...
rebels, which formed the last organized rebel army in the region. On December 15, the last major battle in Jeolla Province, the Battle of the Seokdae Fields, was fought between Yi Bangeon's rebels and Japanese. This battlefield is now one of the Four Battlefields of the Donghak Revolution. 30,000 rebels were present, and 2,000 were killed. As the 800 Japanese soldiers moved through
Yeongam
Yeongam () is a city and county in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. Bordered with Mokpo and Naju to the north, Jangheung County to the east, and Haenam and Gangjin to the south, Yeongam County comprises two '' eups'' and nine '' myeons'', popu ...
,
Gangjin
Gangjin County (''Gangjin-gun'') is a county in South Jeolla Province, South Korea. Gangjin county proper was established in 1895. The county office is located in Gangjin-eup.
The Gangjin Kiln Sites are a noted area for the production of tradi ...
,
Haenam
Haenam (''Haenam-gun'') is a county in South Jeolla Province, South Korea.
The capital of Haenam-gun is Haenam-eup (Haenam town).
The economy of the county is based mainly on agriculture, with rice and radish being the two most common crops.
Hist ...
, and
Jindo Island
Jindo Island is the third largest island in South Korea. Together with a group of much smaller islands, it forms Jindo County.
It is located in South Jeolla province, just off the southwest corner of the Korean peninsula. The island is separated ...
, they engaged in a scorched-earth strategy, killing 600 civilians and burning villages and sacks of rice. Yi Bangeon was finally captured in Christmas 1894 and beheaded with his son in
Seoul
Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) as stated iArticle 103 ...
. With the death of Yi Bangeon, the rebels had been completely exterminated, except for 30 rebels who hid in Mount Daedun.
Sometime in December, Choe Gyeongseon was also captured. On January 1, 1895, the last rebel leader remaining, Kim Deokmyeong, was captured in Wonpyeong. The four leaders were put to trial, and Jeon Bongjun's testimony during the trials forms the ''Testimony of Jeon Bongjun''. In his testimony, Jeon emphasized his views that Donghak believers formed only a small fragment of the rebels, the majority being peasants seeking vengeance. However, he also explained the theology of Donghak to the court. He also denied connections with the Great Regent Heungseon.
On March 29, the four leaders were hanged for treason. Later, Confucian scholars stole the bodies, beheaded them, and displayed the heads on public. Only Choe Gyeongseon's body has been identified, and the locations of the other three are unknown.
The last battle in the Donghak Revolution was the Battle of Mount Daedun, February 17. The 30 rebels held the mountain for three days, until a Japanese battalion attacked them by climbing up the rocky cliffs. Only a young child survived. However, rebels were still killed into 1895 in various ways. Those included:
* Chaining rebels together, then burying them alive in a pit
* Chaining rebels together, then drowning them in the sea. The coast was said to be littered with corpses.
* Piercing the skull with a sharp wooden stick, then burning the stick so that the brain would explode.
* Ripping apart rebels by using horses or cows
* Shredding a rebel to parts using a chariot
* Piercing the stomach with a bamboo stick
* Cutting open the chest and eating the liver and intestines
The Northern leaders Choe Sihyeong and Son Byeongheui, meanwhile, had fled after the defeat at Jonggok. In January 1898, Choe and Son escaped arrest because Kim Yeonguk had been misidentified for Choe Sihyeong. In April 1898, however, Choe was captured and put on trial. Because the government wished to execute Choe before he died of disease, the trials were speedily done. Son Byeongheui and a group of other believers attempted to free Choe by bribing the judges with land, but Choe was executed after a month. He was buried in the cemetery with a small marker saying '
Donghak
Donghak (formerly spelled Tonghak; ) was an academic movement in Korean Neo-Confucianism founded in 1860 by Choe Je-u. The Donghak movement arose as a reaction to seohak (), and called for a return to the "Way of Heaven". While Donghak origin ...
Ringleader Choe Sihyeong'. That night, Son and the others secretly entered the cemetery and took Choe's body. Choe was reburied in
Gwangju
Gwangju () is South Korea's sixth-largest metropolis. It is a designated metropolitan city under the direct control of the central government's Home Minister. The city was also the capital of South Jeolla Province until the provincial office ...
.
Legacy
A part of the rebel requests, including the remarriage of widows and the freeing of slaves, was included in the
Gabo Reform
The Gabo Reform, also known as the Kabo Reform, describes a series of sweeping reforms suggested to the government of Korea, beginning in 1894 and ending in 1896 during the reign of Gojong of Korea in response to the Donghak Peasant Revolution. ...
. However, the reform was not supported because it did not include land reform, which was the peasants' greatest need.
Many rebels later joined the
Righteous Army
Righteous armies, sometimes called irregular armies or militias, are informal civilian militias that have appeared several times in Korean history, when the national armies were in need of assistance.
The first righteous armies emerged during th ...
. The 1895 Righteous Army was led by Confucian scholars who killed rebels when they attempted to join. However, the Righteous Armies of 1905 and 1907 were almost entirely composed of rebels . For example, Yu Eunshik of
Chungju
Chungju (충주시) is a city in North Chungcheong province, South Korea. Uamsan is a mountain located within the outskirts of the city.
The city is famous for the annual martial arts festival held in October. Also of note, former UN Secretary-G ...
killed his lieutenant when he revealed himself as a former rebel. Jeon Haesan, the most famous of the Jeolla Righteous Army leaders, was often called the 'son of Jeon Bongjun', and participated in more than 70 battles from 1905 to 1910 against the Japanese before he was hanged in 1910. However, in his ''War Diary of Jeon Haesan'', Jeon Haesan says that he "did not like to be called the 'son of Jeon Nokdu'(Jeon Bongjun's nickname)", presumably meaning he was not Jeon Bongjun's son. However, the current edition of the
North Korean history textbook claims that 'the patriotic line' descends from Jeon Changhyeok (Jeon bongjun's father and Gyojo Shinwon leader) through Jeon Bongjun to Jeon Haesan. The South Korean Ministry of Education claims that this is North Korean textbook revisionism, in order to glorify
Kim Il-sung
Kim Il-sung (; , ; born Kim Song-ju, ; 15 April 1912 – 8 July 1994) was a North Korean politician and the founder of North Korea, which he ruled from the country's establishment in 1948 until his death in 1994. He held the posts of ...
by comparing the Kim family to the Jeon family.
Many former rebels became nationalists and independence activists. The tiger hunter Hong Beomdo, who was influenced by Donghak, became a guerrilla leader of Manchuria.
Kim Gu
Kim Gu (, ; August 29, 1876 – June 26, 1949), also known by his pen name Baekbeom (백범; ), was a Korean statesman. He was the sixth, ninth, and president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea; a leader of the Korean indepen ...
the 'Baby Jeobju', who fought at the Battle of Haeju, became a profound nationalist and one of the most respected Korean leaders.
The Donghak religion also experienced a profound change. With the death of Choe Sihyeong, Son Byeongheui became the third patriarch. In order to escape persecution as 'rebels', he renamed Donghak '
Cheondoism
Cheondoism (spelled Chondoism in North Korean sources; ) is a 20th-century Korean pantheistic religion, based on the 19th-century Donghak religious movement founded by Ch'oe Che-u and codified under Son Pyŏng-Hi. Cheondoism has its origins i ...
' and fully established the 'Human is Hanulnim' doctrine, thus making Cheondoism a fully pantheistic religion (Choe Jeu seems to have been a
panentheist
Panentheism ("all in God", from the Greek grc, πᾶν, pân, all, label=none, grc, ἐν, en, in, label=none and grc, Θεός, Theós, God, label=none) is the belief that the divine intersects every part of the universe and also extends bey ...
). Cheondoism was legalized in 1905, but Son was imprisoned in 1919 for leading the
March 1st Movement
The March 1st Movement, also known as the Sam-il (3-1) Movement (Hangul: 삼일 운동; Hanja: 三一 運動), was a protest movement by Korean people and students calling for independence from Japan in 1919, and protesting forced assimilation ...
and died in prison. Son's son-in-law, Bang Jeonghwan, was also a
Cheondoist
Cheondoism (spelled Chondoism in North Korean sources; ) is a 20th-century Korean pantheistic religion, based on the 19th-century Donghak religious movement founded by Ch'oe Che-u and codified under Son Pyŏng-Hi. Cheondoism has its origins i ...
who became a famous child activist, and founded the
Children's Day
Children's Day is a commemorative date celebrated annually in honor of children, whose date of observance varies by country.
In 1925, International Children's Day was first proclaimed in Geneva during the World Conference on Child Welfare. Sin ...
in Korea. The artist Suh Yong-sun drew a work titled ''Donghak Peasant Revolution'' on canvas using
acrylic paint
Acrylic paint is a fast-drying paint made of pigment suspended in acrylic polymer emulsion and plasticizers, silicone oils, defoamers, stabilizers, or metal soaps. Most acrylic paints are water-based, but become water-resistant when dry. Depe ...
.
Controversies
Role played by Donghak
There is an ongoing controversy about the naming of the revolution, connected to the exact role that the Donghak religion played in the revolution. Theories include:
# The revolution was fundamentally based on the Donghak religion, and should thus be called the 'Donghak Rebellion' or the 'Donghak Revolution'. This argument is based on that every pre-1922 source called the rebellion 'Donghak Rebellion', and on that every major leader was a Jeobju or Poju. This was the stance made by
South Korea
South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and sharing a Korean Demilitarized Zone, land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed ...
when it was ruled under a military junta.
# The revolution was fundamentally based on the peasants who were suppressed by the government, and should thus be called the 'Peasant Rebellion of 1894', the 'Peasant Revolution of 1894', or the 'Peasant War of 1894'. This argument is based on Jeon Bongjun's testimony: "There were many angered peasants and few Donghak". This is the official stance made by
North Korea
North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and shares borders with China and Russia to the north, at the Yalu River, Y ...
.
# The rebel leaders were Donghak believers, but the actual armies were aggravated peasants, and should thus be called the 'Donghak Peasant Revolution', 'Donghak Peasant Rebellion', 'Donghak Peasant War', or the 'Donghak Peasant Movement'. Jeon said on his testimony: "Our leaders were Donghak, but the army were peasants". This is the current
South Korea
South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea (ROK), is a country in East Asia, constituting the southern part of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and sharing a Korean Demilitarized Zone, land border with North Korea. Its western border is formed ...
n position.
Role played by the Great Regent Heungseon
The role played by King Gojong's father, the
Great Regent Heungseon, is open to controversy. Jeon Bongjun first met Heungseon in 1890 in Unhyeon Palace. Jeon actually lived with the Great Regent Heungseon from 1890 to 1892, and revisited him in February 1893.
[ ] In the meeting, Jeon said to the Heungseon: "I wish to die for the country and the people".
There were many rumours that the Heungseon had secretly caused the rebellion in this meeting.
It is also said that the Heungseon (or occasionally Gojong himself) sent a messenger to Jeon after the Jeonju Truce, asking him to drive out the Japanese. This has not been confirmed. For evidence, the message of Mikhail Hitrovo, the Russian envoy to Japan who sent his message to the Russian envoy to Korea a month before the start of the revolution, is often cited:
he Great Regentis planning for a great riot as its leader, which will begin in summer or autumn. Already, the leaders are buying weapons from China and Japan, and 4,000 rifles have already been bought. A few are from Japan, and a few Japanese have joined this scheme, of which the Japanese government knows nothing about.
![Heungseon Daewongun Portrait](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Heungseon_Daewongun_Portrait.jpg)
In ''A History of Donghak'', Oh Jiyeong claims that the Great Regent attempted a massacre of pro-Japanese politicians in August 1894, simultaneous with the time when Jeon had planned an attack on
Seoul
Seoul (; ; ), officially known as the Seoul Special City, is the capital and largest metropolis of South Korea.Before 1972, Seoul was the ''de jure'' capital of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) as stated iArticle 103 ...
.
During his execution, Kim Gaenam testified that Jeon had been secretly meeting the Great Regent Heungseon. However, the other four leaders refused to connect the Great Regent with the revolution.
Connections with Genyosha
The Japanese historian Seito argued that the Donghak Peasant Revolution had been backed by a
Samurai
were the hereditary military nobility and officer caste of medieval and early-modern Japan from the late 12th century until their abolition in 1876. They were the well-paid retainers of the '' daimyo'' (the great feudal landholders). They h ...
group named
Genyōsha, who landed in Busan on June 27, 1894.
[玄洋社社史編纂会 1977 『玄洋社社史』近代資料出版会=History of Genyosha(written in Japanese)] The claim is however heavily contended by Korean historians.
Seito's account is generally regarded as pseudohistorical by Korean historians. Jeon only had 20 followers in the beginning of the Gobu Revolt, compared with 600 in Seito's account. Also, Seito's list of battles and Jeon Bongjun's account in the ''Jeon Bongjun Gongcho'' are different. Additionally, Seito records that an alliance of rebels and
Genyosha defeated governmental forces from June to August, in which Jeon would be installing ''Jibgangso'' agencies. However, certain Korean historians such as Yi Yihwa and Japanese historians generally regard Saito's account to be partially valid, especially as there were a large body of Japanese soldiers in Korea at the time.
In ''The Founding of Cheondoism'', it is recorded that two Japanese men named Danaka Jiro and Dakeda Hanshi and their fifteen followers, holding
dynamite
Dynamite is an explosive made of nitroglycerin, sorbents (such as powdered shells or clay), and Stabilizer (chemistry), stabilizers. It was invented by the Swedish people, Swedish chemist and engineer Alfred Nobel in Geesthacht, Northern Germa ...
, gave Jeon a gold watch and a horse, and had a council with Jeon, which was done not with translation but by using written sentences (both knew
Chinese characters
Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are known as ''kanji' ...
). The Japanese asked Jeon to ally with Japan and drive out China to make Korea truly independent. Later in 1895, Danaka attempted to free the imprisoned Jeon and take him to
Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north ...
, but Jeon refused, calling Japan "my enemy" and saying "It is not my purpose to seek my petty life through the hands of an enemy". He also said that "I am your enemy and you are my enemy".
However, Jeon also asked the
Genyosha to attempt to protect the rebels from execution.
The Great Regent Heungseon is known to have hired
ronin, or former Samurai, in order to kill political enemies. It has also been speculated that it were Genyosha members who killed
Empress Myeongseong
Empress Myeongseong or Empress Myungsung (명성황후 민씨; 17 November 1851 – 8 October 1895In lunar calendar, the Empress was born on 25 September 1851 and died on 20 August 1895), informally known as Empress Min, was the official wife ...
, the last queen of Korea.
Culture
Folk songs
The Donghak Peasant Revolution gave way for various folk songs. The most famous is the ''Oh Bird, Oh Bird, Oh Roller'' (the 'roller' being mentioned is the
broad-billed roller
The broad-billed roller (''Eurystomus glaucurus'') is a member of the roller family of birds which breeds across tropical Africa and Madagascar in all but the driest regions. It is a wet season breeder, which migrates from the northern and south ...
).
Oh bird, oh bird, oh roller
Do not sit in the Nokdu fields
For when the Nokdu flower falls
The jelly seller weeps.
Oh bird, oh bird, oh roller
Why did you come out
For the pine and bamboo leaves are green
We thought it was summer
But it is freezing with snow.
In this song, the 'roller' are the Japanese soldiers (who wore blue uniforms). The 'Nokdu fields' is Jeon Bongjun, and 'when the Nokdu flower falls' is the execution of Jeon Bongjun. The 'jelly seller' are the peasants of Korea. 'Summer' refers to the ''Hucheon'', the
Donghak
Donghak (formerly spelled Tonghak; ) was an academic movement in Korean Neo-Confucianism founded in 1860 by Choe Je-u. The Donghak movement arose as a reaction to seohak (), and called for a return to the "Way of Heaven". While Donghak origin ...
concept of Paradise, and 'winter' refers to the persecution of the rebels. 'Why did you come out' refers to the anger of the peasants at foreign intervention. This song is sung all over Korea, and seems to have been first sung at the execution of Jeon. There are many versions of this song, with different lyrics.
Another song was sung in September, at the revolution's zenith, but was soon forgotten after the fall of the rebels. This is in contrast to the ''Oh Bird, Oh Bird, Oh Roller'' above.
Gabose gabose
Eulmijeok georida
Byeongshin doemyeon
Byeongshin nanda
This is a word play. The first line, 'Gabo', can mean both 'Let us go' and '1894'. 'Eulmi' refers to 'slow' and '1895', and 'Byeongshin' refers to 'Destruction' and '1896'. This song's literal meaning is 'Let us go in 1894, for if we do not win by 1895, we shall be destroyed by 1896.'
Son Hwajung and the Buddha's Navel
The Dosol Cliff Buddha has been connected to
Son Hwajung and the rebels, and the legend surrounding it appears in the 1940 ''History of Donghak'', meaning that the legend was already existent at the time. It is one of the few legends relating to the Donghak Peasant Revolution.
In 1820, a few days after Yi Seogu became governor of Jeolla, Yi went south to Seonun Temple, Mujang, and see what was inside the navel of the Stone Buddha of Dosol Cliff. But as he was opening the navel, thunder struck, and he could not read the parchment inside, but had to seal the navel again. He had only read the first line: "Yi Seogu, governor of Jeolla, will read this." No one dared read the parchment, for they feared the thunder.
In August 1893, in the Jeob of Jeongeub, there were words about the parchment of the Buddha. son Hwajung said he would like to read it, if only for the thunder. Then, the believer Oh Hayeong said that they should not worry about the lightning: "I hear that when such parchments are hidden, the hider casts spells of lightning so that people cannot read it. I do not think anything will happen. The lightning spell will already have been cast when Yi Seogu attempted to open the seal, and the spell will have been gone. We must open it when it is time, and I shall take all responsibility."
So they gathered thousands of coils of ropes and hundreds of hammers and crushed the navel of the Buddha and took out the parchment inside. They had imprisoned the Buddhists in fear of intervention, and they reported the Donghak believers to the government. That day, the magistrate of Mujang captured hundreds of Donghak believers, with Gang Gyeongjun, Oh Jiyeong, and Go Yeongsuk at their head. The magistrate of Mujang ordered the Donghak believers to hand over the parchment and reveal the location of Son Hwajung. They were beat and flogged until their bodies were hunks of flesh. But the parchment was with Son Hwajung to the north, as were the other leaders, and after ten days of torture, the three leaders were executed for murder and thievery and the others were flogged and sent away.
Later stories claim that the parchment in question was a secret guideline on revolutions that was written by
Jeong Yakyong
Jeong Yak-yong (August 5, 1762 – April 7, 1836) or Chong Yagyong, often simply known as ‘Dasan’ (茶山, one of his ‘ho’ / pen-names meaning ‘the mountain of tea’), was a Korean agronomist, philosopher, and poet. He was one of the ...
, a
Silhak
Silhak was a Korean Confucian social reform movement in late Joseon Dynasty. ''Sil'' means "actual" or "practical", and ''hak'' means "studies" or "learning". It developed in response to the increasingly metaphysical nature of Neo-Confucianism ( ...
scholar, and that Jeon Bongjun modeled the revolution after the book. Others claim that the parchment's destiny was to bring the downfall of the
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and re ...
.
The current Dosol Cliff Buddha has a squarely shaped hole in place of the navel.
Film
Fly High Run Far
''Fly High Run Far'' () is a 1991 South Korean film directed by Im Kwon-taek. It was chosen as Best Film at the Grand Bell Awards.
Plot
A film about Choe Si-hyeong, a leader of the Donghak Peasant Revolution of late 19th-century Korea.
This film ...
, a 1991 South Korean film directed by
Im Kwon-taek
Im Kwon-taek (born December 8, 1934) is one of South Korea's most renowned film directors. In an active and prolific career, his films have won many domestic and international film festival awards as well as considerable box-office success, and h ...
, tells about the Revolution.
Nokdu Flower, a historical drama of SBS in 2019, directed and written by
Shin Kyung-soo,
Jung Hyun-Min, tell about Baek Yi-kang (this is an unreal character in history) join in Donghak Peasant Revolution.
Further reading
* ''Biography of Jeon Bongjun'', Sin Bokryong, 1996
* ''Donghak Peasant Rebellion and the Gabo Reform'', Il Jogak, November 10, 1998
* ''Donghak Revolution and Novels'', Chae Gilsun, 2006
* ''Folk Movements of the Late Joseon Dynasty and the Causation of the Donghak Peasant War'', Bae Hangseob, July 5, 2002
* ''Political and Societal Movements of Donghak'', Jang Yeongmin, December 30, 2004
* ''An Understanding of the Donghak Ideology'', Sin Ilcheol, 1995
See also
*
Donghak
Donghak (formerly spelled Tonghak; ) was an academic movement in Korean Neo-Confucianism founded in 1860 by Choe Je-u. The Donghak movement arose as a reaction to seohak (), and called for a return to the "Way of Heaven". While Donghak origin ...
*
Cheondoism
Cheondoism (spelled Chondoism in North Korean sources; ) is a 20th-century Korean pantheistic religion, based on the 19th-century Donghak religious movement founded by Ch'oe Che-u and codified under Son Pyŏng-Hi. Cheondoism has its origins i ...
*
History of Korea
The Lower Paleolithic era in the Korean Peninsula and Manchuria began roughly half a million years ago.
Christopher J. Norton, "The Current State of Korean Paleoanthropology", (2000), ''Journal of Human Evolution'', 38: 803–825.
The earlies ...
*
Jeon Bongjun
Jeon Bong-jun (1855 – 1895) was born in Taein, Jeollabuk-do, Korea. He was a prominent leader of the Donghak Peasant Revolution. Due to his short physical stature, he was called "''Nokdu Janggun''" (녹두장군, General mung bean).
Struggle ...
Comparable events
*
Boxer Rebellion
The Boxer Rebellion, also known as the Boxer Uprising, the Boxer Insurrection, or the Yihetuan Movement, was an anti-foreign, anti-colonial, and anti-Christian uprising in China between 1899 and 1901, towards the end of the Qing dynasty, by ...
*
Taiping Rebellion
The Taiping Rebellion, also known as the Taiping Civil War or the Taiping Revolution, was a massive rebellion and civil war that was waged in China between the Manchu-led Qing dynasty and the Han, Hakka-led Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. It lasted fr ...
References
External links
Donghak Peasant Revolution pagesat the official website of
Jeongeup
Jeongeup (), also known as Jeongeup-si, is a city in North Jeolla Province, South Korea. The city limits include Naejang-san National Park, a popular destination particularly in autumn due to its foliage. Jeongeup is on the Honam Expressway an ...
City, in
North Jeolla
North Jeolla Province (; ''Jeollabuk-do''), also known as Jeonbuk, is a province of South Korea. North Jeolla has a population of 1,869,711 (2015) and has a geographic area of 8,067 km2 (3,115 sq mi) located in the Honam region in the southwest ...
Province, South Korea.
Donghak Peasant Revolution Informative System
Bibliography
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{{Authority control
Conflicts in 1894
Joseon dynasty
Rebellions in Asia
19th-century revolutions
1894 in Korea
Protests in Korea