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The ''Discourses of Epictetus'' ( el, Ἐπικτήτου διατριβαί, ''Epiktētou diatribai'') are a series of informal lectures by the Stoic philosopher
Epictetus Epictetus (; grc-gre, Ἐπίκτητος, ''Epíktētos''; 50 135 AD) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was born into slavery at Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, in western Turkey) and lived in Rome until his banishment, when h ...
written down by his pupil
Arrian Arrian of Nicomedia (; Greek: ''Arrianos''; la, Lucius Flavius Arrianus; ) was a Greek historian, public servant, military commander and philosopher of the Roman period. '' The Anabasis of Alexander'' by Arrian is considered the best ...
around 108 AD. Four books out of an original eight are still extant. The philosophy of
Epictetus Epictetus (; grc-gre, Ἐπίκτητος, ''Epíktētos''; 50 135 AD) was a Greek Stoic philosopher. He was born into slavery at Hierapolis, Phrygia (present-day Pamukkale, in western Turkey) and lived in Rome until his banishment, when h ...
is intensely practical. He directs his students to focus attention on their opinions, anxieties, passions, and desires, so that "they may never fail to get what they desire, nor fall into what they avoid." True education lies in learning to distinguish what is our own from what does not belong to us, and in learning to correctly assent or dissent to external impressions. The purpose of his teaching was to make people free and happy. The ''Discourses'' have been influential since they were written. They are referred to and quoted by
Marcus Aurelius Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Latin: áːɾkus̠ auɾέːli.us̠ antɔ́ːni.us̠ English: ; 26 April 121 – 17 March 180) was Roman emperor from 161 to 180 AD and a Stoic philosopher. He was the last of the rulers known as the Five Good ...
. Since the 16th century, they have been translated into multiple languages and reprinted many times.


Title and dating

The books did not have a formal title in ancient times. Although Simplicius called them ''Diatribai'' (Διατριβαί, Discourses), other writers gave them titles such as ''Dialexis'' (Διαλέξεις, Talks), ''Apomnêmoneumata'' (Ἀπομνημονεύματα, Records), and ''Homiliai'' (Ὁμιλίαι, Conversations). The modern name comes from the titles given in the earliest medieval manuscript: "Arrian's ''Diatribai'' of Epictetus" ( el, Ἀρριανοῦ τῶν Ἐπικτήτου Διατριβῶν). The Greek word ''Diatribai'' literally means "informal talks". As to the date, it is generally agreed that the ''Discourses'' were composed sometime in the years around 108 AD. Epictetus himself refers to the coins of
Trajan Trajan ( ; la, Caesar Nerva Traianus; 18 September 539/11 August 117) was Roman emperor from 98 to 117. Officially declared ''optimus princeps'' ("best ruler") by the senate, Trajan is remembered as a successful soldier-emperor who presid ...
, which shows he was teaching during that reign. Arrian was
suffect consul A consul held the highest elected political office of the Roman Republic ( to 27 BC), and ancient Romans considered the consulship the second-highest level of the ''cursus honorum'' (an ascending sequence of public offices to which politic ...
in around 130, and since forty-two was the standard age for that position, he would have been at the right age of around twenty in 108. Furthermore the "commissioner" of the "free cities" to whom ''Discourse'' iii. 7 is addressed is thought to be the same man Pliny the Younger addresses his ''Letter'' viii. 24—a letter which has been dated to around 108.


Writing

There were originally eight books, but only four now remain in their entirety, along with a few fragments of the others. In a preface attached to the Discourses, Arrian explains how he came to write them: The ''Discourses'' purport to be the actual words of Epictetus. They are written in
Koine Greek Koine Greek (; Koine el, ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος, hē koinè diálektos, the common dialect; ), also known as Hellenistic Greek, common Attic, the Alexandrian dialect, Biblical Greek or New Testament Greek, was the common supra-reg ...
unlike the Attic Greek Arrian uses in his own compositions. The differences in style are very marked, and they portray a vivid and separate personality. The precise method Arrian used to write the ''Discourses'' has long been a matter of vigorous debate. Extreme positions have been held ranging from the view that they are largely Arrian's own compositions to the view that Epictetus actually wrote them himself. The mainstream opinion is that the ''Discourses'' report the actual words of Epictetus, even if they cannot be a pure ''verbatim'' record. A. A. Long writes:


Setting

The ''Discourses'' are set in Epictetus' own classroom in
Nicopolis Nicopolis ( grc-gre, Νικόπολις, Nikópolis, City of Victory) or Actia Nicopolis was the capital city of the Roman province of Epirus Vetus. It was located in the western part of the modern state of Greece. The city was founded in 29  ...
and they show him conversing with visitors, and reproving, exhorting, and encouraging his pupils. These pupils appear to have been young men like Arrian, of high social position and contemplating entering the public service. The ''Discourses'' are neither formal lectures nor are they part of the curriculum proper. The regular classes involved reading and interpreting characteristic portions of Stoic philosophical works, which, as well as ethics, must have included instruction in the
logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating how conclusions follow from premis ...
and
physics Physics is the natural science that studies matter, its fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge which rel ...
which were part of the Stoic system. The ''Discourses'' instead record conversations which followed the formal instruction. They dwell on points which Epictetus regarded as of special importance, and which gave him an opportunity for friendly discourse with his pupils and to discuss their personal affairs. They are not, therefore, a formal presentation of Stoic philosophy. Instead the ''Discourses'' are intensely practical. They are concerned with the conscious moral problem of right living, and how life is to be carried out well.


Themes


Three parts of philosophy

Epictetus divides philosophy into three fields of training, with especial application to ethics. The three fields, according to Epictetus, are, (1) desire (ὄρεξις); (2) choice (ὁρμή); (3) assent (συγκατάθεσις): The first and most essential practice is directed towards our passions and desires, which are themselves only types of impression, and as such they press and compel us. A continued practice is thus required to oppose them. To this first practice must be added a second, which is directed towards that which is appropriate (duty), and a third, the object of which is certainty and truth; but the latter must not pretend to supplant the former. Avoidance of the bad, desire for the good, the direction towards the appropriate, and the ability to assent or dissent, this is the mark of the philosopher. Scholars disagree on whether these three fields relate to the traditional Stoic division of philosophy into Logic, Physics, and Ethics. The third field unambiguously refers to logic since it concerns valid reasoning and certainty in judgment. The second field relates to ethics, and the first field, on desires and aversions, appears to be preliminary to ethics. However
Pierre Hadot Pierre Hadot (; ; 21 February 1922 – 24 April 2010) was a French philosopher and historian of philosophy specializing in ancient philosophy, particularly Neoplatonism. Life In 1944, Hadot was ordained, but following Pope Pius XII’s ency ...
has argued that this first field relates to physics since for the Stoics the study of human nature was part of the wider subject of the nature of things.


What is 'up to us'

True education lies in learning to distinguish what is our own from what does not belong to us. But there is only one thing which is fully our own: that which is our will or choice ( prohairesis). The use which we make of the external impressions is our one chief concern, and upon the right kind of use depends exclusively our happiness. Although we are not responsible for the ideas that present themselves to our consciousness, we are absolutely responsible for the way in which we use them. In the realm of judgment the truth or falsity of the external impression is to be decided. Here our concern is to assent to the true impression, reject the false, and suspend judgment regarding the uncertain. This is the act of choice. Only that which is subject to our choice is good or evil; all the rest is neither good nor evil; it concerns us not, it is beyond our reach; it is something external, merely a subject for our choice: in itself it is indifferent, but its application is not indifferent, and its application is either consistent with or contrary to nature. This choice, and consequently our opinion upon it, is in our power; in our choice we are free; nothing that is external of us, not even Zeus, can overcome our choice: it alone can control itself. Nothing external, neither death nor exile nor pain nor any such thing, can ever force us to act against our will.


Universal nature

We are bound up by the law of nature with the whole fabric of the world. In the world the true position of a human is that of a member of a great system. Each human being is in the first instance a citizen of one's own nation or commonwealth; but we are also a member of the great city of gods and people. Nature places us in certain relations to other persons, and these determine our obligations to parents, siblings, children, relatives, friends, fellow-citizens, and humankind in general. The shortcomings of our fellow people are to be met with patience and charity, and we should not allow ourselves to grow indignant over them, for they too are a necessary element in the universal system.


Providence

The universe is wholly governed by an all-wise, divine Providence. All things, even apparent evils, are the will of God, and good from the point of view of the whole. In virtue of our rationality we are neither less nor worse than the gods, for the magnitude of reason is estimated not by length nor by height but by its judgments. The aim of the philosopher therefore is to reach the position of a mind which embraces the whole world. The person who recognizes that every event is necessary and reasonable for the best interest of the whole, feels no discontent with anything outside the control of moral purpose.


The Cynic sage

The historical models to which Epictetus refers to are
Socrates Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no te ...
and
Diogenes Diogenes ( ; grc, Διογένης, Diogénēs ), also known as Diogenes the Cynic (, ) or Diogenes of Sinope, was a Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Cynicism (philosophy). He was born in Sinope, an Ionian colony on the Black Sea c ...
. But he describes an ideal character of a missionary sage, the perfect Stoic—or, as he calls him, the Cynic. This philosopher has neither country nor home nor land nor slave; his bed is the ground; he is without wife or child; his only home is the earth and sky and a cloak. He must suffer beatings, and must love those who beat him. The ideal human thus described will not be angry with the wrong-doer; he will only pity his erring.


Manuscript editions

The earliest
manuscript A manuscript (abbreviated MS for singular and MSS for plural) was, traditionally, any document written by hand – or, once practical typewriters became available, typewritten – as opposed to mechanically printed or reproduced ...
of the ''Discourses'' is a twelfth-century manuscript kept at the
Bodleian Library The Bodleian Library () is the main research library of the University of Oxford, and is one of the oldest libraries in Europe. It derives its name from its founder, Sir Thomas Bodley. With over 13 million printed items, it is the sec ...
, Oxford as MS Auct. T. 4. 13. In the Bodleian manuscript, a blot or stain has fallen onto one of the pages, and has made a series of words illegible; in all the other known manuscripts these words (or sometimes the entire passage) are omitted, thus all the other manuscripts are derived from this one archetype. It is thought that the Bodleian manuscript may be a copy of one owned by
Arethas of Caesarea Arethas of Caesarea ( el, Ἀρέθας; born c. 860 AD) was Archbishop of Caesarea Mazaca in Cappadocia (modern Kayseri, Turkey) early in the 10th century, and is considered one of the most scholarly theologians of the Greek Orthodox Church. ...
in the early 10th century. Arethas was an important collector of manuscripts and he is also responsible for transmitting a copy of Marcus Aurelius' ''
Meditations ''Meditations'' () is a series of personal writings by Marcus Aurelius, Roman Emperor from AD 161 to 180, recording his private notes to himself and ideas on Stoic philosophy. Marcus Aurelius wrote the 12 books of the ''Meditations'' in Koin ...
''. The Bodleian manuscript contains marginal notes which have been identified as by Arethas. The manuscript is however "full of errors of all kinds". Many corrections were made by medieval scholars themselves, and many emendations have been made by modern scholars to produce a clean text.


Publication history

The ''Discourses'' were first printed (in Greek) by Vettore Trincavelli, at
Venice Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400 bridges. The isla ...
in 1535, although the manuscript used was very faulty. This was followed by editions by
Jakob Schegk Jakob Schegk (also known as ''Jakob Degen'', ''Johann Jacob Brucker Schegk'', ''Jakob Schegk the elder'', ''Schegkius'', and ''Scheckius''; 6 June 1511 – 9 May 1587) was a polymath German Aristotelian philosopher and academic physician. Origin ...
(1554) and
Hieronymus Wolf Hieronymus Wolf (13 August 1516 – 8 October 1580) was a sixteenth-century German historian and humanist, most famous for introducing a system of Roman historiography that eventually became the standard in works of medieval Greek history. L ...
(1560). John Upton's edition published 1739–41 was an improvement on these since he had some knowledge of several manuscripts. This in turn was improved upon by the five volume edition by Johann Schweighäuser, 1799–1800. A critical edition was produced by Heinrich Schenkl in 1894 (second edition 1916) which was based upon the Bodleian manuscript.


English translations

The first English translation did not appear until 1758 with the appearance of Elizabeth Carter's translation. This proved to be very successful, with a second edition appearing a year later (1759), a third edition in 1768, and a fourth edition published posthumously in 1807. It influenced later translations: e.g. those of Higginson and George Long (see his Introduction for comments, some critical of Carter). A complete list of English translations is as follows: * Elizabeth Carter, (1758), ''All the works of Epictetus, which are now extant; consisting of hi
''Discourses''
preserved by Arrian, in four books, the Enchiridion, and fragments.'' (Richardson) * Thomas Wentworth Higginson, (1865), ''The Works of Epictetus. Consisting of His Discourses, in Four Books, The Enchiridion, and Fragments.'' (Little, Brown, and Co.) * George Long, (1877), ''The Discourses of Epictetus, with the Encheridion and Fragments.'' (George Bell) * Percy Ewing Matheson, (1916), ''Epictetus: The Discourses and Manual together with Fragments of his Writings''. (Oxford University Press) * William Abbott Oldfather, (1925–8), ''Discourses.'' (Loeb Classical Library) and *
Robin Hard Robin may refer to: Animals * Australasian robins, red-breasted songbirds of the family Petroicidae * Many members of the subfamily Saxicolinae (Old World chats), including: **European robin (''Erithacus rubecula'') **Bush-robin **Forest rob ...
(translation reviser), Christopher Gill (editor), (1995), ''The Discourses of Epictetus.'' (Everyman) * Robert Dobbin, (2008), ''Discourses and Selected Writings'' (Penguin Classics) *
Robin Hard Robin may refer to: Animals * Australasian robins, red-breasted songbirds of the family Petroicidae * Many members of the subfamily Saxicolinae (Old World chats), including: **European robin (''Erithacus rubecula'') **Bush-robin **Forest rob ...
, (2014), ''Discourses, Fragments, Handbook.'' (Oxford University Press) * Robin Waterfield, (2022), ''The Complete Works: Handbook, Discourses, and Fragments''. (The University of Chicago Press) All of these are complete translations with the exception of Robert Dobbin's book, which contains only 64 of the 95 Discourses. Robin Hard has produced two translations: the first (for Everyman in 1995) was just a revision of Elizabeth Carter's version; however, his 2014 edition (for Oxford University Press) is the first complete original translation since the 1920s.


See also

* ''
Memento mori ''Memento mori'' (Latin for 'remember that you ave todie'

Notes


References

* * * * * *


External links

*Ed. Heinrich Schenkl
''Epicteti Dissertationes ab Arriano digestae.''
at the Stoic Therapy eLibrary *Elizabeth Carter
''The Moral Discourses of Epictetus''
at the
Internet Archive The Internet Archive is an American digital library with the stated mission of "universal access to all knowledge". It provides free public access to collections of digitized materials, including websites, software applications/games, music ...
*George Long
''Discourses of Epictetus.''
at the Stoic Therapy eLibrary *Thomas Wentworth Higginson
''The Works of Epictetus''
at the
Perseus Project The Perseus Project is a digital library project of Tufts University, which assembles digital collections of humanities resources. Version 4.0 is also known as the "Perseus Hopper", and it is hosted by the Department of Classical Studies. The proj ...
*Percy Ewing Matheson
''Epictetus: The Discourses and Manual together with Fragments of his Writings''
at the Internet Archive *William Abbott Oldfather, ''Epictetus. The Discourses As Reported by Arrian.'
Volume 1Volume 2
at the Internet Archive *William Abbott Oldfather
''Epictetus. The Discourses As Reported by Arrian.''
at the Stoic Therapy eLibrary
MS Auct. T. 4. 13
In the Bodleian Libraries' Catalogue of Medieval Manuscripts * {{Authority control 2nd-century books Ancient Greek works Stoicism Works by Arrian Texts in Koine Greek