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Dietrich Prinz's chess program, also known as Robot Chess and Mate-in-Two, first ran in November 1951 on the Ferranti Mark I at the
University of Manchester The University of Manchester is a public university, public research university in Manchester, England. The main campus is south of Manchester city centre, Manchester City Centre on Wilmslow Road, Oxford Road. The University of Manchester is c ...
, the first commercially available computer. It is regarded as one of the earliest efforts toward developing computer-based
chess Chess is a board game for two players. It is an abstract strategy game that involves Perfect information, no hidden information and no elements of game of chance, chance. It is played on a square chessboard, board consisting of 64 squares arran ...
program, following
Alan Turing Alan Mathison Turing (; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical biologist. He was highly influential in the development of theoretical computer ...
’s theoretical chess program, Turochamp, which was never implemented on a computer. As part of a collaboration between
Ferranti Ferranti International PLC or simply Ferranti was a UK-based electrical engineering and equipment firm that operated for over a century, from 1885 until its bankruptcy in 1993. At its peak, Ferranti was a significant player in power grid system ...
and the University of Manchester, British computing pioneer
Dietrich Prinz Dietrich Gunther Prinz (March 29, 1903 – December 1989) was a computer science pioneer, notable for his work on early British computers at Ferranti, and in particular for developing the first limited chess program in 1951. Biography He was born ...
contributed to the development of the Ferranti Mark I and its prototypes, the SSEM and the Manchester Mark I. Prinz began developing his chess program on the Ferranti Mark I in 1949, and it became operational in November 1951. Due to the machine's limited capabilities, playing a chess game against the computer was impossible, forcing Prinz to focus solely on endgame studies, specifically . Additionally, the rules were significantly simplified, omitting
castling Castling is a move in chess. It consists of moving the king (chess), king two squares toward a rook (chess), rook on the same and then moving the rook to the square that the king passed over. Castling is permitted only if neither the king ...
, two-square pawn moves, en passant captures, and pawn
promotion Promotion may refer to: Marketing * Promotion (marketing), one of the four marketing mix elements, comprising any type of marketing communication used to inform or persuade target audiences of the relative merits of a product, service, brand or i ...
. The program also did not differentiate between
checkmate Checkmate (often shortened to mate) is any game position in chess and other chess-like games in which a player's king is in check (threatened with ) and there is no possible escape. Checkmating the opponent wins the game. In chess, the king is ...
and
stalemate Stalemate is a situation in chess where the player whose turn it is to move is not in check and has no legal move. Stalemate results in a draw. During the endgame, stalemate is a resource that can enable the player with the inferior position ...
. Prinz opted for an
exhaustive search In computer science, brute-force search or exhaustive search, also known as generate and test, is a very general problem-solving technique and algorithmic paradigm that consists of systematically checking all possible candidates for whether or ...
method, which required evaluating thousands of possible moves in every game. The program was significantly slower than a human player, taking nearly fifteen minutes per move. The primary causes of this slowness were the data transfers between magnetic memory, electronic memory, and the program's testing procedures. Despite its simplicity, the program holds historical significance as the first computer chess program to run on a fully operational computer. Prinz did not develop another chess program, possibly due to the increasing demands of his work at Ferranti.


Origins

Dietrich Prinz Dietrich Gunther Prinz (March 29, 1903 – December 1989) was a computer science pioneer, notable for his work on early British computers at Ferranti, and in particular for developing the first limited chess program in 1951. Biography He was born ...
was a
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany, the country of the Germans and German things **Germania (Roman era) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
-born computing pioneer who studied at
Humboldt University The Humboldt University of Berlin (, abbreviated HU Berlin) is a public university, public research university in the central borough of Mitte in Berlin, Germany. The university was established by Frederick William III of Prussia, Frederick W ...
in
Berlin Berlin ( ; ) is the Capital of Germany, capital and largest city of Germany, by both area and List of cities in Germany by population, population. With 3.7 million inhabitants, it has the List of cities in the European Union by population withi ...
, where he attended lectures by
Max Planck Max Karl Ernst Ludwig Planck (; ; 23 April 1858 – 4 October 1947) was a German Theoretical physics, theoretical physicist whose discovery of energy quantum, quanta won him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1918. Planck made many substantial con ...
and
Albert Einstein Albert Einstein (14 March 187918 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who is best known for developing the theory of relativity. Einstein also made important contributions to quantum mechanics. His mass–energy equivalence f ...
. As a
Jew Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, religion, and community are highly inte ...
, he fled the
Third Reich Nazi Germany, officially known as the German Reich and later the Greater German Reich, was the German state between 1933 and 1945, when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party controlled the country, transforming it into a totalitarian dictat ...
in 1938 and settled in
England England is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is located on the island of Great Britain, of which it covers about 62%, and List of islands of England, more than 100 smaller adjacent islands. It ...
. He became a British citizen in 1947. Commonly referred to by his initials, DP, at the University of Manchester, Prinz was something of a ''
geek The word ''geek'' is a slang term originally used to describe Eccentricity (behavior), eccentric or non-mainstream people; in current use, the word typically connotes an expert or enthusiast obsessed with a hobby or intellectual pursuit. In th ...
'' before the term even existed and was considered a "disciple" of Turing. Advances in radar research and the equipment used for
cryptography Cryptography, or cryptology (from "hidden, secret"; and ''graphein'', "to write", or ''-logy, -logia'', "study", respectively), is the practice and study of techniques for secure communication in the presence of Adversary (cryptography), ...
during
World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...
opened a gap in the field of
computing Computing is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating computer, computing machinery. It includes the study and experimentation of algorithmic processes, and the development of both computer hardware, hardware and softw ...
and facilitated the development of computers by the late 1940s. After the war,
Ferranti Ferranti International PLC or simply Ferranti was a UK-based electrical engineering and equipment firm that operated for over a century, from 1885 until its bankruptcy in 1993. At its peak, Ferranti was a significant player in power grid system ...
's business began to decline due to a lack of orders from the
UK Ministry of Defence The Ministry of Defence (MOD or MoD) is a ministerial department of the Government of the United Kingdom. It is responsible for implementing the defence policy set by the government and serves as the headquarters of the British Armed Forces. ...
. Eric Grundy, a manager, then set up a team to study the potential uses of computers. In 1947, he appointed Dietrich Prinz as head of the computer development team. Prinz collaborated with the
University of Manchester The University of Manchester is a public university, public research university in Manchester, England. The main campus is south of Manchester city centre, Manchester City Centre on Wilmslow Road, Oxford Road. The University of Manchester is c ...
in the development of computers. Ferranti had already worked with the university in the 1930s on the manufacturing of electronic tubes. After two months of testing, the Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM, nicknamed ''baby'') finally worked. Once the feasibility of his design was demonstrated, a project was launched to make it a more user-friendly computer: the Manchester Mark I, which quickly became the prototype for the Ferranti Mark I, the first commercially available general-purpose computer. It was delivered to the university in August 1950.
Alan Turing Alan Mathison Turing (; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical biologist. He was highly influential in the development of theoretical computer ...
and his colleague Cicely Popplewell worked for about six months, particularly on the user interface, and then the computer was officially completed in February 1951. Prinz learns programming on the Mark I through seminars led by Turing and Popplewell. He sees chess programming as "a clue to methods that could be used to handle structural or logistical problems occurring in other fields, through electronic computers." His interest in computer chess programs is probably influenced by Alan Turing. Prinz then runs his chess program, which he has been developing since 1949, on the Mark I. Quickly, Turing and Prinz conclude that no program on the Mark I can play a full chess game. Then, they decided to focus their efforts on the endgame, particularly checkmates in two moves. Prinz is probably inspired, like
Christopher Strachey Christopher S. Strachey (; 16 November 1916 – 18 May 1975) was a British computer scientist. He was one of the founders of denotational semantics, and a pioneer in programming language design and computer time-sharing.F. J. Corbató, et al., T ...
and
Donald Michie Donald Michie (; 11 November 1923 – 7 July 2007) was a British researcher in artificial intelligence. During World War II, Michie worked for the Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park, contributing to the effort to solve " Tunny ...
, by an article titled ''A Theory of Chess and Noughts and Crosses'' published in 1950 in the periodical '' Penguin Science News'' written by National Physical Laboratory (NPL) scientist Donald Davies. He may also have known about the existence of
El Ajedrecista ''El Ajedrecista'' (, ) is an automaton built in 1912 by Leonardo Torres Quevedo in Madrid, a pioneering autonomous machine capable of playing chess. As opposed to the human-operated Mechanical Turk and Ajeeb, ''El Ajedrecista'' had a true integr ...
, which allows playing the endgame of king and rook against a lone king, and could have been inspired by it to create his program. In November 1951, his program successfully solved on the Mark I.


Functioning

The limited technical capabilities of the Ferranti Mark I not only forced Prinz to reduce the game to checkmates in two moves. To allow the tasks to be executed in the shortest time possible, some restrictions were imposed on how the rules were explained to the machine. No distinction is made between checkmate and
stalemate Stalemate is a situation in chess where the player whose turn it is to move is not in check and has no legal move. Stalemate results in a draw. During the endgame, stalemate is a resource that can enable the player with the inferior position ...
,
castling Castling is a move in chess. It consists of moving the king (chess), king two squares toward a rook (chess), rook on the same and then moving the rook to the square that the king passed over. Castling is permitted only if neither the king ...
is not allowed, nor are the two-step pawn moves,
en passant In chess, ''en passant'' (, "in passing") describes the capture by a Pawn (chess), pawn of an enemy pawn on the same and an adjacent that has just made an initial two-square advance. This is a special case in the rules of chess. The capturi ...
, or
promotion Promotion may refer to: Marketing * Promotion (marketing), one of the four marketing mix elements, comprising any type of marketing communication used to inform or persuade target audiences of the relative merits of a product, service, brand or i ...
. Each game played by the program requires the evaluation of several thousand moves, using
brute force search In computer science, brute-force search or exhaustive search, also known as generate and test, is a very general problem-solving technique and algorithmic paradigm that consists of systematically checking all possible candidates for whether or n ...
, unlike '' Turochamp'', which performs fewer searches because it is based on a
heuristic A heuristic or heuristic technique (''problem solving'', '' mental shortcut'', ''rule of thumb'') is any approach to problem solving that employs a pragmatic method that is not fully optimized, perfected, or rationalized, but is nevertheless ...
search. Prinz chose this option because a game as simplified as this does not require a heuristic search. The program and the initial position of the pieces are provided to the machine via a
punched tape file:PaperTapes-5and8Hole.jpg, Five- and eight-hole wide punched paper tape file:Harwell-dekatron-witch-10.jpg, Paper tape reader on the Harwell computer with a small piece of five-hole tape connected in a circle – creating a physical program ...
and transferred into its magnetic memory. An initial routine transfers the data into electronic memory, after which the computer begins its calculations. The program first examines all squares connected to the
king King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted Government, governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a Constitutional monarchy, ...
’s position by a
knight A knight is a person granted an honorary title of a knighthood by a head of state (including the pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church, or the country, especially in a military capacity. The concept of a knighthood ...
’s move to determine whether the king is on the board, which squares are occupied, what piece is adjacent, and finally, whether it is indeed a knight. This series of checks is repeated for each piece. The program includes a routine for calculating the next possible move, a routine for verifying the legality of the move, and several sequences responsible for recording the move and the resulting position. All these routines are overseen by a master routine, which synthesizes the overall structure of the problem and ensures that the subroutines are executed in the correct sequence. The programming techniques are rudimentary, and the program's execution speed requires refinements and improvements. The program takes longer to select a move than a human player. For instance, a single move takes the computer fifteen minutes to compute and print the solution. A large part of the time used by the program is allocated to self-checking tests. Another time-consuming task is the magnetic transfer of data between the magnetic and electronic storage, such as subprograms and data concerning positions and movements. Nine of these data transfers are made with each move. In comparison, the time required to perform the movement calculations is of minor importance, even though all possible moves, including impossible ones, are evaluated. Incorrect positions or prohibited moves are quickly discarded by the program and account for only a small portion of the calculation time. When the first chess problem in history was presented to the program, a single move forced the program to check 450 possible moves, 100 of which were illegal. The program takes about two seconds to decide each of its moves. The program continues its analysis until a solution is found. It prints each white move tested and announces '' mate'' once a winning move is identified. It does not include any
graphical interface A graphical user interface, or GUI, is a form of user interface that allows users to interact with electronic devices through graphical icons and visual indicators such as secondary notation. In many applications, GUIs are used instead of te ...
, as the results are printed on paper.


First chess problem in history solved by the program

The program must find a move for White that ensures checkmate on the following move, regardless of Black's choice. The squares are numbered unusually, from left to right, starting from 11 to 18 on the bottom row, then 21 to 28 for the second row, and so on, up to the top row (from 81 to 88). Thus, square 68 is on the sixth rank and the eighth file (h6). The program prints all tested positions and announces '' mate'' when it finds the solution. In the diagram on the right, the correct move is Rook to 68 ("Tour en 68"), meaning Rh6. Before finding the solution, the program previously attempted the following moves in order: P78 (gxh7), R17 (Rg1), R16 (Rf1), R15 (Re1), R14 (Rd1), R13 (Rc1), R12 (Rb1), R11 (Ra1), R28 (Rh2), R38 (Rh3), R48 (Rh4), R58 (Rh5). This problem is commonly attributed, without any supporting evidence, to the American chess prodigy
Paul Morphy Paul Charles Morphy (June 22, 1837July 10, 1884) was an American chess player. During his brief career in the late 1850s, Morphy was acknowledged as the world's greatest chess master. A prodigy, Morphy emerged onto the chess scene in 1857 ...
(1837–1884), meaning it predates the program creation.


Legacy

Dietrich Prinz’s chess program is unanimously recognized as the first game program to run on a multi-purpose computer, specifically on the first commercial computer, the Ferranti Mark I, and it holds a significant place in the history of computer chess. As such, it is also part of the origins of video games, frequently mentioned in works covering the history of this medium as the first functional game on a computer. Additionally, it ranks among the pioneering developments in
artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) is the capability of computer, computational systems to perform tasks typically associated with human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and decision-making. It is a field of re ...
.
Jack Copeland Brian Jack Copeland (born 1950) is Professor of Philosophy at the University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand, and author of books on the computing pioneer Alan Turing. Education Copeland was educated at the University of Oxford, obt ...
, who has written extensively about the life and work of
Alan Turing Alan Mathison Turing (; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical biologist. He was highly influential in the development of theoretical computer ...
, describes the program as "an important moment, the
Big Bang The Big Bang is a physical theory that describes how the universe expanded from an initial state of high density and temperature. Various cosmological models based on the Big Bang concept explain a broad range of phenomena, including th ...
of computer chess." While Prinz's program successfully solved mate-in-two problems starting in November 1951, it wasn't until 1958, with the program developed by American Alex Bernstein on the
IBM 704 The IBM 704 is the model name of a large digital computer, digital mainframe computer introduced by IBM in 1954. Designed by John Backus and Gene Amdahl, it was the first mass-produced computer with hardware for floating-point arithmetic. The I ...
, that a full chess game could be played against a computer. Despite the program’s reliance on brute-force search and its limitations in speed, its historical significance is often compared to groundbreaking achievements in other fields. For instance, Copeland draws a comparison to the
Wright brothers The Wright brothers, Orville Wright (August 19, 1871 – January 30, 1948) and Wilbur Wright (April 16, 1867 – May 30, 1912), were American aviation List of aviation pioneers, pioneers generally credited with inventing, building, and flyin ...
’ first flight, recognizing the achievement’s importance, even if it was only an early step toward more sophisticated developments. Prinz published all the details of his program in 1952 in the article ''Robot Chess'' in the journal ''Research'' (no. 5, pp. 261-266). The article was reissued in 1988 in the book ''Computer Chess Compendium'' (pp. 213-219). B. V. Bowden describes the program in his 1953 work titled ''Faster Than Thought: Symposium on Digital Computing Machines''. In his view, it can only serve as a crude example of the speed a program can reach and demonstrates the need for improvements in both hardware and programming to create a machine capable of playing chess against a human. He believes that the program can be improved in several areas, particularly in terms of electronic memory usage. Better programming techniques could reduce calculation time by minimizing data exchanges between storage spaces. He harshly criticizes the program, adding that if this rudimentary method of programming is the only option available, competition under reasonable conditions between the machine and a human is unrealistic. However, he softens his position by pointing out that the program solved a problem in just a few weeks of learning, which is a reasonable advance for a beginner player. In 1972, Alex Bell also mentioned the program in his work on the history of computer chess programs, titled ''Games Playing with Computers''. Like Bowden, he considers the program too rudimentary to compete with humans under reasonable conditions. According to Copeland, Turing could likely have improved the program's
source code In computing, source code, or simply code or source, is a plain text computer program written in a programming language. A programmer writes the human readable source code to control the behavior of a computer. Since a computer, at base, only ...
, but he did not. Turing knew that brute-force search, when used alone, had no future, and he paid little attention to it. Prinz reports that once the program became functional, it was never used again. He adds that due to an increase in workload caused by the growing number of computers, he could no longer focus on minor tasks like programming chess games. Furthermore, a slightly more complex chess problem would, according to him, probably have required hours of calculations from a computer. Later, Prinz wrote a manual for the Ferranti Mark I, which was a model of clarity, in contrast to those written by Turing, while continuing to work on computer music.


References


Bibliography

* * * * * {{Portal, Chess, Video games, 1950s Chess software Early history of video games 1951 software