''Clathrus archeri'' (synonyms ''Lysurus archeri'', ''Anthurus archeri'', ''Pseudocolus archeri''), commonly known as octopus stinkhorn or devil's fingers, is a fungus which has a global distribution. Using rDNA, Geastrales, Gauteriales and Phallales form a

monophyletic In cladistics for a group of organisms, monophyly is the condition of being a clade—that is, a group of taxa composed only of a common ancestor (or more precisely an ancestral population) and all of its lineal descendants. Monophyletic gro ...

group and eventually diffierentation of Nidulariales and

Tulostomatales The fungal order Agaricales, also known as gilled mushrooms (for their distinctive gills) or euagarics, contains some of the most familiar types of mushrooms. The order has 33 extant families, 413 genera, and over 13,000 described species, along ...

within the euagarics

clade A clade (), also known as a monophyletic group or natural group, is a group of organisms that are monophyletic – that is, composed of a common ancestor and all its lineal descendants – on a phylogenetic tree. Rather than the English term, ...

. This species was first described in 1980 in a collection from Tasmania. The young fungus erupts from a suberumpent egg by forming into four to seven elongated slender arms initially erect and attached at the top. The arms then unfold to reveal a pinkish-red interior covered with a dark-olive

spore In biology, a spore is a unit of sexual or asexual reproduction that may be adapted for dispersal and for survival, often for extended periods of time, in unfavourable conditions. Spores form part of the life cycles of many plants, algae, f ...

-containing gleba. In maturity it smells like putrid flesh. Recently, ''C. archeri'' var. ''alba'' with white tentacles or arms has been reported from the Shola Forests in the Western Ghats, Kerala, India.

Morphology

''Clathrus archeri'' grows in 2 distinct stages, first an egg stage followed by the fungal "arms" emerging. During the egg stage, Clathrus archeri forms a white ball-like egg shape, usually 2–3 cm in diameter. Next, the thallus emerges from the egg in a starfish-like shape with 4-6 arms on average (up to 8). Each arm can grow up to 10 cm in length and is coated in gleba on the upper surface. Fruiting bodies produce a red-orange color due to the production of

carotenoid Carotenoids (), also called tetraterpenoids, are yellow, orange, and red organic compound, organic pigments that are produced by plants and algae, as well as several bacteria, and Fungus, fungi. Carotenoids give the characteristic color to pumpki ...

s. Fungal spores are oblong, smooth, and 3.5-6 x 1.5-2 µm in size. It is hypothesized that the strong putrid smell of the gleba support evidence of

coevolution In biology, coevolution occurs when two or more species reciprocally affect each other's evolution through the process of natural selection. The term sometimes is used for two traits in the same species affecting each other's evolution, as well ...

with some

angiosperm Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...

flowers called sapromyiophilous flowers. In a laboratory setting, Clathrus archeri was found to grow best in 26℃ on a compost agar (CA) medium with a pH of 6.0. Under these conditions, the thallus grew an average of 2.9mm a day over 4 weeks and in a radial shape. Clathrus archeri produces white and fluffy mycelium and eventually turns a pink color. Mycelia strands are 0.5 to 1.5mm in diameter and branch in a tree-like manner. Fungal

Hypha A hypha (; ) is a long, branching, filamentous structure of a fungus, oomycete, or actinobacterium. In most fungi, hyphae are the main mode of vegetative growth, and are collectively called a mycelium. Structure A hypha consists of one or ...

e create irregularly shaped vesicles that contain lipids. On the surface of the hyphae,

calcium oxalate Calcium oxalate (in archaic terminology, oxalate of lime) is a calcium salt of oxalic acid with the chemical formula . It forms hydrates , where ''n'' varies from 1 to 3. Anhydrous and all hydrated forms are colorless or white. The monohydrate ...

crystals are secreted. It is hypothesized that this outer layer of crystals creates a protective hydrophobic layer around the hyphae. ''Clathrus archeri'' forms unstable perforate septal pore caps, this may suggest that perforation formation in ''Phallomycetidae'' begins later in comparison to similar groups.

Ecology

''Clathrus archeri'' grows best in environments rich in decaying vegetation. The fungus is a saprotroph. It is most commonly found in leaf litter or mulch below vegetation. The most abundant acid secreted by the fungus is

oxalic acid Oxalic acid is an organic acid with the systematic name ethanedioic acid and formula . It is the simplest dicarboxylic acid. It is a white crystalline solid that forms a colorless solution in water. Its name comes from the fact that early inve ...

, this acid binds to metal

cation An ion () is an atom or molecule with a net electrical charge. The charge of an electron is considered to be negative by convention and this charge is equal and opposite to the charge of a proton, which is considered to be positive by convent ...

s and increases the bioavailability of some minerals. Fungal mycelium exhibits calcium pooling which changes soil pH and availability of phosphorus for surrounding flora.

Habitat

Common in environments with abundant decaying organic matter. ''Clathrus archeri'' is most commonly found in leaf litter, mulch, woodlands, and grasslands. Saprophytes prefer areas with high moisture or water, access to oxygen, neutral pH, and low-medium temperatures.

Geographic distribution

The species is believed to be endemic to southern Africa, New Zealand and

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...

, but has been spreading to other continents and is often

invasive Invasive may refer to: *Invasive (medical) procedure *Invasive species *Invasive observation, especially in reference to surveillance *Invasively progressive spread of disease from one organ in the body to another, especially in reference to cancer ...

. ''Clathrus archeri'' now has a global distribution and has been naturalised in Europe and

North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...

. It was first discovered in the UK over a century ago (~1914) and has spread across much of Europe. ''Clathrus archeri'' was likely introduced via wool fabric in supplies for WWI. As climate changes drive niche habitat lost, ''Clathrus archeri'' is expected to become threatened in Australia but is expected to expand to northeast Europe. The expansion of ''Clathrus archeri'' in Europe is further supported by its invasion into 2 new Romanian sites in July 2013. Furthermore, ''Clathrus archeri'' has been found in 90 sites in Poland as of 2013, 65% of which are located in forests. Recent modeling studies in Poland expect the alien species to occur in areas with a thick layer of snow, which does not melt in winter, at higher altitudes, where the water deficit is low.

Unique characteristics

''Clathrus archeri'' produces compounds similar to the scent of rotting flesh. This compound production supports evidence of convergent evolution between fungi and angiosperms. This scent is used by the fungus to attract flies to serve as agents for spore dispersal. ''Clathrus archeri'' is not known to be toxic, however, consuming this fungus would not be enjoyable. Due to the rotting stench of stinkhorns, culinary application is not a common thought. There is also no record of the fungus being treated as a delicacy.

References

* {{Taxonbar, from=Q1757951 Phallales Fungi described in 1859 Fungi native to Australia Fungi of New Zealand Fungi of Asia Fungi of Europe Fungi of North America Taxa named by Miles Joseph Berkeley