Deportation (band)

Deportation is the expulsion of a person or group of people from a territory. The actual definition changes depending on the place and context, and it also changes over time. Forced displacement or forced migration of an individual or a group may be caused by deportation, for example ethnic cleansing, and other reasons . A person who has been deported or is under sentence of deportation is called a ''deportee''.

Definition

Definitions of deportation vary, with some implicating "transfer beyond State borders" (distinguishing it from forcible transfer), others considering it "the actual implementation of n expulsionorder in cases where the person concerned does not follow it voluntarily", and others differentiating removal of legal immigrants (expulsion) and illegal immigrants (deportation).

This article approaches deportation in the most general sense, in accordance with International Organization for Migration, which defines expulsion and deportation synonyms in the context of migration, adding:

"The terminology used at the domestic or international level on expulsion and deportation is not uniform but there is a clear tendency to use the term expulsion to refer to the legal order to leave the territory of a State, and removal or deportation to refer to the actual implementation of such order in cases where the person concerned does not follow it voluntarily."

According to the European Court of Human Rights, collective expulsion is any measure compelling non-nationals, as a group, to leave a country, except where such a measure is taken on the basis of a reasonable and objective examination of the particular case of each individual non-national of the group. Mass expulsion may also occur when members of an ethnic group are sent out of a state regardless of nationality. Collective expulsion, or expulsion en masse, is prohibited by several instruments of international law.

History

Antiquity

Expulsions widely occurred in ancient history, and is well-recorded particularly in ancient Mesopotamia. The kingdoms of Israel and Judah faced several forced expulsions, including deportations by the Neo-Assyrian Empire following the fall of Israel and during Sennacherib's campaign in the 8th century BCE. Later, the Neo-Babylonian Empire deported much of the Judean population upon conquering Judah in 597 BCE and 587 BCE.

Deportation in the Achaemenid Empire

Deportation was practiced as a policy toward rebellious people in Achaemenid Empire. The precise legal status of the deportees is unclear; but ill-treatment is not recorded. Instances include:A. Shapur Shahbazi, Erich Kettenhofen, John R. Perry, "DEPORTATIONS," Encyclopædia Iranica, VII/3, pp. 297–312, available online at (accessed on 30 December 2012).

Deportation in the Parthian Empire

Unlike in the Achaemenid and Sassanian periods, records of deportation are rare during the Arsacid Parthian period. One notable example was the deportation of the Mards in Charax, near Rhages (Ray) by Phraates I. The 10,000 Roman prisoners of war after the Battle of Carrhae appear to have been deported to Alexandria Margiana (Merv) near the eastern border in 53 BC, who are said to married to local people. It is hypothesized that some of them founded the Chinese city of Li-Jien after becoming soldiers for the Hsiung-nu, but this is doubted.

Hyrcanus II, the Jewish king of Judea (Jerusalem), was settled among the Jews of Babylon in Parthia after being taken as captive by the Parthian-Jewish forces in 40 BC.

Roman POWs in the Antony's Parthian War may have suffered deportation.

Deportation in the Sasanian empire

Deportation was widely used by the Sasanians, especially during the wars with the Romans.

During Shapur I's reign, the Romans (including Valerian) who were defeated at the Battle of Edessa were deported to Persis. Other destinations were Parthia, Khuzestan, and Asorestan. There were cities which were founded and were populated by Romans prisoners of war, including Shadh-Shapur ( Dayr Mikhraq) in Meshan, Bishapur in Persis, Wuzurg-Shapur (Ukbara; Marw-Ḥābūr), and Gundeshapur. Agricultural land were also given to the deportees. These deportations initiated the spread Christianity in the Sassanian empire. In Rēw-Ardashīr (Rishahr; Yarānshahr), Persis, there was a church for the Romans and another one for Carmanians. Their hypothesized decisive role in the spread of Christianity in Persia and their major contribution to Persian economy has been recently criticized by Mosig-Walburg (2010). In the mid-3rd century, Greek-speaking deportees from north-western Syria were settled in Kashkar, Mesopotamia.

After the Arab incursion into Persia during Shapur II's reign, he scattered the defeated Arab tribes by deporting them to other regions. Some were deported to Bahrain and Kirman, possibly to both populate these unattractive regions (due to their climate) and bringing the tribes under control.

In 395 AD 18,000 Roman populations of Sophene, Armenia, Mesopotamia, Syria, and Cappadocia were captured and deported by the "Huns". the prisoners were freed by the Persians as they reached Persia, and were settled in Slōk ( Wēh Ardashīr) and Kōkbā (Kōkhē). The author of the text ''Liber Calipharum'' has praised the king Yazdegerd I (399–420) for his treatment of the deportees, who also allowed some to return.

Major deportations occurred during the Anastasian War, including Kavad I's deportation of the populations of Theodosiopolis and Amida to Arrajan (Weh-az-Amid Kavad).

Major deportations occurred during the campaigns of Khosrau I from the Roman cities of Sura, Beroea, Antioch, Apamea, Callinicum, and Batnai in Osrhoene, to Wēh-Antiyōk-Khosrow (also known as Rūmagān; in Arabic: al-Rūmiyya). The city was founded near Ctesiphon especially for them, and Khosrow reportedly "did everything in his power to make the residents want to stay". The number of the deportees is recorded to be 292,000 in another source.

Middle ages

The Medieval European age was marked with several large religious deportations, including that of Christians, Jews and Muslims. For instance, the Almoravid deported Christians from Spain to Morocco, with mass deportations taking place in 1109, 1126, 1130 and 1138.

Modern deportation

With the beginning of the Age of Discovery, deporting individuals to an overseas colony also became common practice. As early as the 16th century, '' degredados'' formed a substantial portion of early colonists in Portuguese empire. From 1717 onward Britain deported around 40,000 British religious objectors and "criminals" to America before the practice ceased in 1776. Jailers sold the "criminals" to shipping contractors, who then sold them to plantation owners. The "criminals" worked for the plantation owner for the duration of their sentence. After Britain lost control of the area which became the United States, Australia became the destination for "criminals" deported to British colonies. Britain transported more than 160,000 British "criminals" to the Australian colonies between 1787 and 1855.

Meanwhile, in Japan during Sakoku, all portuguese and spanish were expelled from the country.

In the 18th century the Tipu Sultan, of Mysore, deported tens of thousands of civilians, from lands he had annexed, to serve as slave labour in other parts of his empire, for example the: Captivity of Mangalorean Catholics at Seringapatam.

In the late 19th century the United States of America began designating "desired" and "undesired" immigrants, leading to the birth of illegal immigration and subsequent deportation of immigrants when found in irregular situations. Starting with the Chinese Exclusion Act, the US government has since deported more than 55 million immigrants, the majority of whom came from Latin-American countries.

At the beginning of the 20th century the control of immigration began becoming common practice, with the Immigration Restriction Act 1901 in Australia, the Aliens Act 1905 in the United Kingdom and the Continuous journey regulation of 1908 in Canada, elevating the deportation of "illegal" immigrants to a global scale.

In the meantime, deportation of "regular residents" also increased.

Deportation in the United States

In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, more stringent enforcement of immigration laws were ordered by the executive branch of the U.S. government, which led to increased deportation and repatriation to Mexico. In the 1930s, during the Great Depression, between 355,000 and 2 million Mexicans and Mexican Americans were deported or repatriated to Mexico, an estimated 40 to 60% of whom were U.S. citizens – overwhelmingly children. At least 82,000 Mexicans were formally deported between 1929 and 1935 by the government. Voluntary repatriations were more common than deportations. In 1954, the executive branch of the U.S. government implemented Operation Wetback, a program created in response to public hysteria about immigration and immigrants from Mexico. Operation Wetback led to the deportation of nearly 1.3 million Mexicans from the United States.

Deportation in Nazi Germany

Nazi policies deported homosexuals, Jews, Poles, and Romani from their established places of residence to Nazi concentration camps or extermination camps set up at a considerable distance from their original residences. During the Holocaust, the Nazis made heavy use of euphemisms, where "deportation" frequently meant the victims were subsequently killed, as opposed to simply being relocated.

Deportation in the Soviet Union

The Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin carried out forced mass transfers of some 6 million people during the 1930s and 1940s, resulting in millions of deaths. As many as 110 separate deportations have been catalogued, included the targeting of at least 13 distinct ethnicities and 8 entire nations. Many historians have described Soviet deportations as ethnic cleansing, crimes against humanity, and/or genocide.

Deportation in the Independent State of Croatia

An estimated 120,000 Serbs were deported from the Independent State of Croatia to German-occupied Serbia, and 300,000 fled by 1943.

Contemporary

All countries reserve the right to deport persons without right of abode even those who are longtime residents or possess permanent residency. In general, foreigners who have committed serious crimes, entered the country illegally, overstayed or broken the conditions of their visa, or otherwise lost their legal status to remain in the country may be administratively removed or deported.

Since the 1980s, the world also saw the development of practices of externalization/"offshoring immigrants", currently being used by Australia, Canada, the United States, the European Union. and the United Kingdom. Some of the countries in the Persian Gulf have even used this to deport their own citizens. They have paid the Comoros to give them passports and accept them.

The period after the fall of the iron curtain showed increased deportation and readmission agreements in parts of Europe.

During its invasion of Ukraine, the Russian Federation has perpetrated mass deportations of Ukrainian citizens to Russia and occupied territories. While independent numbers are difficult to come by, and depending on the degree of Russian coercion or force required to meet the definition of "deported", reported numbers range from tens of thousands to 4.5 million deportees.

Noteworthy deportees

Alexander Berkman, Emma Goldman, C.L.R. James, Claudia Jones, Fritz Julius Kuhn, Lucky Luciano, and Anna Sage were all deported from the United States by being arrested and brought to the federal immigration control station on Ellis Island in New York Harbor and, from there, forcibly removed from the United States on ships.

Opposition

Many criticize deportations, calling them inhuman, as the questioning the effectiveness of deportations. Some are completely opposed towards any deportations, while others state it is inhuman to take somebody to a foreign land without their consent.

In popular culture

In literature, deportation appears as an overriding theme in the 1935 novel, ''Strange Passage'' by Theodore D. Irwin.
Films depicting or dealing with fictional cases of deportation are many and varied. Among them are '' Ellis Island'' (1936), ''Exile Express'' (1939), ''Five Came Back'' (1939), ''Deported'' (1950), and '' Gambling House'' (1951). More recently, ''Shottas'' (2002) treated the issue of U.S. deportation to the Caribbean post-1997.

See also

* Ethnic cleansing
* Forced migration
* Acadian deportation
* Diaspora
* Depopulation of Diego Garcia
* Impediment to expulsion
* Indian Removal Act
* Israelite deportation
* June deportation
* Operation Priboi
* Penal transportation
* Population transfer
* Population transfer in the Soviet Union
* Prussian deportations of 1885–1890
* Remigration
* Seminole Wars
* Soviet deportations from Estonia
* Exile

References

Notes

Bibliography

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* Balderrama, Francisco and Rodriguez, Raymond. ''Decade of Betrayal: Mexican Repatriation in the 1930s''. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1995. .

Campana, Aurélie. "Case Study: The Massive Deportation of the Chechen People: How and why Chechens were Deported". Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence. November 2007.
Accessed August 11, 2008.
* Christensen, Peter. ''The Decline of Iranshahr: Irrigation and Environments in the History of the Middle East, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1500'' Copenhagen, Denmark: Museum Tusculanum Press, 1993. .
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* Forsythe, David P. and Lawson, Edward. ''Encyclopedia of Human Rights''. 2d ed. Florence, Ky.: Taylor & Francis, 1996.
* Fragomen, Austin T. and Bell, Steven C. ''Immigration Fundamentals: A Guide to Law and Practice''. New York: Practising Law Institute, 1996.
* García, Juan Ramon. ''Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954''. Westport, Ct.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 1980. .
* Gibney, Matthew J. and Hansen, Randall. "Deportation and the Liberal State: The Involuntary Return of Asylum Seekers and Unlawful Migrants in Canada, the UK, and Germany". ''New Issues in Refugee Research: Working Paper Series No. 77. Geneva, Switzerland: United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 2003.
* Gutiérrez, David G. ''Walls and Mirrors: Mexican Americans, Mexican Immigrants, and the Politics of Ethnicity''. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1995.
*
* Hing, Bill Ong. ''Defining America Through Immigration Policy''. Philadelphia, Pa.: Temple University Press, 2004.
* Hitt, Michael D. ''Charged with Treason: The Ordeal of 400 Mill Workers During Military Operations in Roswell, Georgia, 1864–1865''. Monroe, N.Y.: Library Research Associates, 1992.
* International Law Commission. United Nations. ''Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1996: Report of the Commission to the General Assembly on the Work of Its 48th Session''. New York: United Nations Publications, 2000.
*
* Jaimoukha, Amjad M. ''The Chechens: A Handbook''. Florence, Ky.: Routledge, 2005.
*
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* "The Law of Necessity As Applied in the Bisbee Deportation Case". ''Arizona Law Review''. 3:2 (1961).
* "Lewis Attacks Deportation of Leaders by West Virginia Authorities". ''The New York Times''. July 17, 1921.
* Lindquist, John H. and Fraser, James. "A Sociological Interpretation of the Bisbee Deportation". ''Pacific Historical Review''. 37:4 (November 1968).
* López, Ian F. Haney. ''Racism on Trial: The Chicano Fight for Justice''. New ed. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press, 2004.
* Martin, MaryJoy. ''The Corpse On Boomerang Road: Telluride's War on Labor, 1899–1908''. Lake City, Colo.: Western Reflections Publishing Co., 2004.
* Mata, Albert G. "Operation Wetback: The Mass Deportation of Mexican Undocumented Workers in 1954 by Juan Ramon García". ''Contemporary Sociology''. 1:5 (September 1983)
* Mawdsley, Evan. ''The Stalin Years: The Soviet Union 1929–1953''. Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 2003.
* McCaffray, Susan Purves and Melancon, Michael S. ''Russia in the European Context, 1789–1914: A Member of the Family''. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
* McKay, Robert R. "The Federal Deportation Campaign in Texas: Mexican Deportation from the Lower Rio Grande Valley during the Great Depression". ''Borderlands Journal''. (Fall 1981).
* Naimark, Norman M. ''Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2001.


*
* President's Mediation Commission. ''Report on the Bisbee Deportations Made by the President's Mediation Commission to the President of the United States''. Washington, D.C.: President's Mediation Commission, November 6, 1917.
* Silverberg, Louis G. "Citizens' Committees: Their Role in Industrial Conflict". ''Public Opinion Quarterly''. 5:1 (March 1941).
*
* Suggs, Jr., George G. ''Colorado's War on Militant Unionism: James H. Peabody and the Western Federation of Miners''. 2nd ed. Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
*
* Valenciana, Christine. "Unconstitutional Deportation of Mexican Americans During the 1930s: A Family History and Oral History". ''Multicultural Education''. Spring 2006.

Further reading

* Garrity, Meghan (2022). " Introducing the Government-Sponsored Mass Expulsion Dataset". ''Journal of Peace Research.''

External links

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