Athabaskan (also spelled ''Athabascan'', ''Athapaskan'' or ''Athapascan'', and also known as Dene) is a large family of

indigenous languages An indigenous language, or autochthonous language, is a language that is native to a region and spoken by indigenous peoples. This language is from a linguistically distinct community that originated in the area. Indigenous languages are not neces ...

North America North America is a continent in the Northern Hemisphere and almost entirely within the Western Hemisphere. It is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Car ...

, located in western North America in three areal language groups: Northern, Pacific Coast and Southern (or

Apachean The Apache () are a group of culturally related Native American tribes in the Southwestern United States, which include the Chiricahua, Jicarilla, Lipan, Mescalero, Mimbreño, Ndendahe (Bedonkohe or Mogollon and Nednhi or Carrizaleño an ...

). Kari and Potter (2010:10) place the total territory of the 53 Athabaskan languages at .

Chipewyan The Chipewyan ( , also called ''Denésoliné'' or ''Dënesųłı̨né'' or ''Dënë Sųłınë́'', meaning "the original/real people") are a Dene Indigenous Canadian people of the Athabaskan language family, whose ancestors are identified ...

is spoken over the largest area of any North American native language, while

Navajo The Navajo (; British English: Navaho; nv, Diné or ') are a Native American people of the Southwestern United States. With more than 399,494 enrolled tribal members , the Navajo Nation is the largest federally recognized tribe in the United ...

is spoken by the largest number of people of any native language north of Mexico. ''Athebaskan '' is a version of a

Cree The Cree ( cr, néhinaw, script=Latn, , etc.; french: link=no, Cri) are a Indigenous peoples of the Americas, North American Indigenous people. They live primarily in Canada, where they form one of the country's largest First Nations in Canada ...

name for

Lake Athabasca Lake Athabasca (; French: ''lac Athabasca''; from Woods Cree: , "herethere are plants one after another") is located in the north-west corner of Saskatchewan and the north-east corner of Alberta between 58° and 60° N in Canada. The lake ...

( crm, Āðapāskāw, script=Latn '

here Here is an adverb that means "in, on, or at this place". It may also refer to: Software * Here Technologies, a mapping company * Here WeGo (formerly Here Maps), a mobile app and map website by Here Television * Here TV (formerly "here!"), a TV ...

there are reeds one after another'), in

Canada Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering over , making it the world's second-largest country by tot ...

. Cree is one of the

Algonquian languages The Algonquian languages ( or ; also Algonkian) are a subfamily of Indigenous languages of the Americas, indigenous American languages that include most languages in the Algic languages, Algic language family. The name of the Algonquian language f ...

and therefore not itself an Athabaskan language. The name was assigned by

Albert Gallatin Abraham Alfonse Albert Gallatin (January 29, 1761 – August 12, 1849) was a Genevan– American politician, diplomat, ethnologist and linguist. Often described as "America's Swiss Founding Father", he was a leading figure in the early years ...

in his 1836 (written 1826) classification of the languages of North America. He acknowledged that it was his choice to use that name for the language family and its associated peoples: The four spellings, ''Athabaskan'', ''Athabascan'', ''Athapaskan'', and ''Athapascan'', are in approximately equal use. Particular communities may prefer one spelling over another (Krauss 1987). For example, the

Tanana Chiefs Conference Tanana Chiefs Conference (TCC), the traditional tribal consortium of the 42 villages of Interior Alaska, is based on a belief in tribal self-determination and the need for regional Native unity. TCC is a non-profit organization that works toward ...

and

Alaska Native Language Center The Alaska Native Language Center, established in 1972 in Fairbanks, Alaska, is a research center focusing on the research and documentation of the Native languages of Alaska. It publishes grammars, dictionaries, folklore collections and research m ...

prefer the spelling ''Athabascan''. ''

Ethnologue ''Ethnologue: Languages of the World'' (stylized as ''Ethnoloɠue'') is an annual reference publication in print and online that provides statistics and other information on the living languages of the world. It is the world's most comprehensiv ...

'' uses ''Athapaskan'' in naming the language family and individual languages. Although the term ''Athabaskan'' is prevalent in linguistics and anthropology, there is an increasing trend among scholars to use the terms and ''Dené languages'', which is how many of the native speakers identify it, and are applying these terms to the entire language family. For example, following a motion by attendees in 2012, the annual Athabaskan Languages Conference changed its name to the Dené Languages Conference.

Languages

Linguists conventionally divide the Athabaskan family into three groups, based on geographic distribution: #

Northern Athabaskan languages Northern Athabaskan is a geographic sub-grouping of the Athabaskan language family spoken by indigenous peoples in the northern part of North America, particularly in Alaska (Alaskan Athabaskans), Yukon, and the Northwest Territories. The Northe ...

Pacific Coast Athabaskan languages Pacific Coast Athabaskan is a geographical and possibly genealogical grouping of the Athabaskan language family. California Athabaskan : 1. Hupa (dining'-xine:wh, a.k.a. Hoopa-Chilula) :: dialects: ::* Hupa ::* Tsnungwe ::: - tse:ning-xwe ::: - ...

Southern Athabaskan languages Southern Athabaskan (also Apachean) is a subfamily of Athabaskan languages spoken primarily in the Southwestern United States (including Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah) with two outliers in Oklahoma and Texas. The language is spoken to a ...

or "Apachean" The 32 Northern Athabaskan languages are spoken throughout the interior of

Alaska Alaska ( ; russian: Аляска, Alyaska; ale, Alax̂sxax̂; ; ems, Alas'kaaq; Yup'ik: ''Alaskaq''; tli, Anáaski) is a state located in the Western United States on the northwest extremity of North America. A semi-exclave of the U.S., ...

and the interior of northwestern

in the

Yukon Yukon (; ; formerly called Yukon Territory and also referred to as the Yukon) is the smallest and westernmost of Canada's three territories. It also is the second-least populated province or territory in Canada, with a population of 43,964 as ...

and

Northwest Territories The Northwest Territories (abbreviated ''NT'' or ''NWT''; french: Territoires du Nord-Ouest, formerly ''North-Western Territory'' and ''North-West Territories'' and namely shortened as ''Northwest Territory'') is a federal territory of Canada. ...

, as well as in the provinces of

British Columbia British Columbia (commonly abbreviated as BC) is the westernmost province of Canada, situated between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. It has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, ...

Alberta Alberta ( ) is one of the thirteen provinces and territories of Canada. It is part of Western Canada and is one of the three prairie provinces. Alberta is bordered by British Columbia to the west, Saskatchewan to the east, the Northwest Ter ...

Saskatchewan Saskatchewan ( ; ) is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province in Western Canada, western Canada, bordered on the west by Alberta, on the north by the Northwest Territories, on the east by Manitoba, to the northeast by Nunavut, and on t ...

and

Manitoba Manitoba ( ) is a Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Canada at the Centre of Canada, longitudinal centre of the country. It is Canada's Population of Canada by province and territory, fifth-most populous province, with a population o ...

. Five Athabaskan languages are

official language An official language is a language given supreme status in a particular country, state, or other jurisdiction. Typically the term "official language" does not refer to the language used by a people or country, but by its government (e.g. judiciary, ...

s in the Northwest Territories, including

(), Dogrib or , Gwich'in (Kutchin, Loucheux), and the Northern and Southern variants of

Slavey The Slavey (also Slave and South Slavey) are a First Nations indigenous peoples of the Dene group, indigenous to the Great Slave Lake region, in Canada's Northwest Territories, and extending into northeastern British Columbia and northwestern ...

. The seven or more Pacific Coast Athabaskan languages are spoken in the Pacific Northwest of the United States. These include Applegate, Galice, several Rogue River area languages, Upper Coquille, Tolowa, and Upper Umpqua in

Oregon Oregon () is a U.S. state, state in the Pacific Northwest region of the Western United States. The Columbia River delineates much of Oregon's northern boundary with Washington (state), Washington, while the Snake River delineates much of it ...

; Eel River, Hupa, Mattole–Bear River, and Tolowa in northern

California California is a U.S. state, state in the Western United States, located along the West Coast of the United States, Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the List of states and territori ...

; and possibly Kwalhioqua-Clatskanie in

Washington Washington commonly refers to: * Washington (state), United States * Washington, D.C., the capital of the United States ** A metonym for the federal government of the United States ** Washington metropolitan area, the metropolitan area centered o ...

. The seven Southern Athabaskan languages are isolated by considerable distance from both the Pacific Coast languages and the Northern languages. Reflecting an ancient migration of peoples, they are spoken by Native Americans in the American Southwest and the northwestern part of

Mexico Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...

. This group comprises the six Southern Athabaskan languages and Navajo. The following list gives the Athabaskan languages organized by their geographic location in various North American states, provinces and territories (including some languages that are now extinct). Several languages, such as Navajo and Gwich'in, span the boundaries: these languages are repeated by location in this list. For alternative names for the languages, see the classifications given later in this article. * Alaska: Ahtna, Deg Hit'an, Dena'ina/Tanaina, Gwich'in/Kutchin, Hän, Holikachuk, Koyukon, Lower Tanana, Middle Tanana, Tanacross, Upper Tanana, Upper Kuskokwim * Yukon: Gwich'in/Kutchin, Hän, Kaska, Mountain, Tagish, Northern Tutchone, Southern Tutchone, Upper Tanana * Northwest Territories: Bearlake, Dëne Sųłiné/Chipewyan, Gwich'in, Hare, Mountain, Slavey, Tłįchǫ Yatiì/Dogrib * Nunavut: Dëne Sųłiné * British Columbia: Babine–Witsuwit'en, Bearlake, Beaver, Chilcotin, Dakelh/Carrier, Hare, Kaska, Mountain, Nicola Athapaskan, Sekani/Tsek'ene, Slavey, Tagish, Tahltan, Tsetsaut * Alberta: Beaver, Dëne Sųłiné, Slavey, Tsuut'ina/Sarcee * Saskatchewan: Dëne Sųłiné * Washington: Kwalhioqua-Clatskanai (Willapa, Suwal) * Oregon: Applegate, Clatskanie, Galice, Rogue River (Chasta Costa, Euchre Creek, Tututni, Upper Coquille), Tolowa, Upper Umpqua * California: Eel River, Hupa, Mattole–Bear River, Kato, Tolowa * Utah: Navajo * Colorado: Jicarilla, Navajo * Arizona: Chiricahua, Navajo, Western Apache * New Mexico: Chiricahua, Mescalero, Jicarilla, Lipan, Navajo * Texas: Mescalero, Lipan * Oklahoma: Chiricahua, Plains Apache * Sonora: Chiricahua * Chihuahua: Chiricahua

Alaskan Athabaskan languages

External classification

Eyak The Eyak ( Eyak: ʔi·ya·ɢdəlahɢəyu·, literally "inhabitants of Eyak Village at Mile 6"Krauss, Michael E. 1970. ''Eyak dictionary''. University of Alaska and Massachusetts Institute of Technology 1963-1970) are a Native American indigenous ...

and Athabaskan together form a genealogical linguistic grouping called ''Athabaskan–Eyak'' (AE) – well- demonstrated through consistent

sound correspondences In linguistics, the comparative method is a technique for studying the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with common descent from a shared ancestor and then extrapolating backwards ...

, extensive shared vocabulary, and cross-linguistically unique homologies in both verb and noun

morphology Morphology, from the Greek and meaning "study of shape", may refer to: Disciplines * Morphology (archaeology), study of the shapes or forms of artifacts * Morphology (astronomy), study of the shape of astronomical objects such as nebulae, galaxies ...

Tlingit The Tlingit ( or ; also spelled Tlinkit) are indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America. Their language is the Tlingit language (natively , pronounced ),

is distantly related to the Athabaskan–Eyak group to form the Na-Dene family, also known as ''Athabaskan–Eyak–Tlingit'' (AET). With

Jeff Leer Jeff is a masculine name, often a short form (hypocorism) of the English given name Jefferson or Jeffrey, which comes from a medieval variant of Geoffrey. Music * DJ Jazzy Jeff, American DJ/turntablist record producer Jeffrey Allen Townes * ...

's 2010 advances, the reconstructions of Na-Dene (or Athabascan–Eyak–Tlingit) consonants, this latter grouping is considered by Alaskan linguists to be a well-demonstrated family. Because both Tlingit and Eyak are fairly remote from the Athabaskan languages in terms of their sound systems, comparison is usually done between them and the reconstructed Proto-Athabaskan language. This resembles both Tlingit and Eyak much more than most of the daughter languages in the Athabaskan family. Although ''

'' still gives the Athabaskan family as a relative of

Haida Haida may refer to: Places * Haida, an old name for Nový Bor * Haida Gwaii, meaning "Islands of the People", formerly called the Queen Charlotte Islands * Haida Islands, a different archipelago near Bella Bella, British Columbia Ships * , a 1 ...

in their definition of the Na-Dene family, linguists who work actively on Athabaskan languages discount this position. The

, for example, takes the position that recent improved data on Haida have served to conclusively disprove the Haida-inclusion hypothesis. Haida has been determined to be unrelated to Athabaskan languages. A symposium in Alaska in February 2008 included papers on the

Yeniseian The Yeniseian languages (sometimes known as Yeniseic or Yenisei-Ostyak;"Ostyak" is a concept of areal rather than genetic linguistics. In addition to the Yeniseian languages it also includes the Uralic languages Khanty and Selkup. occasionally ...

and Na-Dené families.

Edward Vajda Edward J. Vajda (Camp Lejeune, North Carolina, September 10, 1958 as Edward M. Johnson; changed his name in 1981) is a historical linguist at Western Washington University. He is known for his work on the proposed Dené–Yeniseian language fam ...

of Western Washington University summarized ten years of research, based on verbal morphology and reconstructions of the proto-languages, indicating that these languages might be related.

Internal classification

The internal structure of the Athabaskan language family is complex, and its exact shape is still a hotly debated issue among experts. The conventional three-way split into Northern, Pacific Coast, and Southern is essentially based on geography and the physical distribution of Athabaskan peoples rather than sound linguistic comparisons. Despite this inadequacy, current comparative Athabaskan literature demonstrates that most Athabaskanists still use the three-way geographic grouping rather than any of the proposed linguistic groupings given below, because none of them has been widely accepted. This situation will presumably change as both documentation and analysis of the languages improves.

Overview

Besides the traditional geographic grouping described previously, there are a few comparatively based subgroupings of the Athabaskan languages. Below the two most current viewpoints are presented. The following is an outline of the classification according to

Keren Rice Keren Rice (born 1949) is a Canadian linguist. She is a professor of linguistics and serves as the Director of the Centre for Aboriginal Initiatives at the University of Toronto. Education and career Rice earned her PhD in 1976 from the Univ ...

, based on those published in

Goddard Goddard may refer to: People * Goddard (given name) * Goddard (surname) Places in the United States *Goddard, Kansas *Goddard, Kentucky *Goddard, Maryland *Goddard College, a low-residency college with campuses in Vermont and Washington *Goddar ...

(1996) and Mithun (1999). It represents what is generously called the "Rice–Goddard–Mithun" classification (Tuttle & Hargus 2004:73), although it is almost entirely due to Keren Rice. # Southern Alaska (Dena'ina, Ahtna) # Central Alaska–Yukon (Deg Hit'an, Holikachuk/Kolchan, Koyukon, Upper Kuskokwim, Lower Tanana, Tanacross, Upper Tanana, N. Tutchone, S. Tutchone, Gwich'in, Hän) # Northwestern Canada (Tagish, Tahltan, Kaska, Sekani, Dunneza/Beaver, Slavey, Mountain, Bearlake, Hare, Tłįchǫ Yat'iì/Dogrib, Dëne Sųłiné/Chipewyan) # Tsetsaut # Central British Columbia (Babine–Witsuwit'en, Dakelh/Carrier, Chilcotin, Nicola?) # Tsuut'ina/Sarsi # Kwalhioqua–Clatskanai # Pacific Coast Athabaskan (Upper Umpqua, Tututni, Galice–Applegate, Tolowa, Hupa, Mattole, Eel River, Kato) # Apachean (

White Mountain Apache The Fort Apache Indian Reservation is an Indian reservation on the border of New Mexico and Arizona, United States, encompassing parts of Navajo, Gila, and Apache counties. It is home to the federally recognized White Mountain Apache Tribe of th ...

Tonto Apache The Tonto Apache (Dilzhę́’é, also Dilzhe'e, Dilzhe’eh Apache) is one of the groups of Western Apache people and a federally recognized tribe, the Tonto Apache Tribe of Arizona. The term is also used for their dialect, one of the three di ...

San Carlos Apache The San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation ( Western Apache: Tsékʼáádn), in southeastern Arizona, United States, was established in 1872 as a reservation for the Chiricahua Apache tribe as well as surrounding Yavapai and Apache bands removed fr ...

, Mescalero–Chiricahua, Jicarilla, Lipan, Plains) Branches 1–7 are the Northern Athabaskan (areal) grouping. Kwalhioqua–Clatskanai (#7) was normally placed inside the Pacific Coast grouping, but a recent consideration by Krauss (2005) does not find it very similar to these languages. A different classification by Jeff Leer is the following, usually called the "Leer classification" (Tuttle & Hargus 2004:72–74): # Alaskan (Ahtna, Dena'ina, Deg Hit'an, Koyukon, Holikachuk/Kolchan, Lower Tanana, Tanacross, Upper Tanana, Gwich'in, Hän) # Yukon (Tsetsaut, N. Tutchone, S. Tutchone, Tagish, Tahltan, Kaska, Sekani, Dunneza/Beaver) # British Columbia (Babine–Witsuwit'en, Dakelh/Carrier, Chilcotin) # Eastern (Dëne Sųłiné/Chipewyan, Slavey, Mountain, Bearlake, Hare, Tłįchǫ Yat'iì/Dogrib) # Southerly Outlying (Tsuut'ina/Sarsi, Apachean, Pacific Coast Athabaskan, Kwalhioqua–Tlatskanai) Neither subgrouping has found any significant support among other Athabaskanists. Details of the Athabaskan family tree should be regarded as tentative. As Tuttle and Hargus put it, "we do not consider the points of difference between the two models ... to be decisively settled and in fact expect them to be debated for some time to come." (Tuttle & Hargus 2004:74) The Northern group is particularly problematic in its internal organization. Due to the failure of the usual criteria of shared innovation and systematic phonetic correspondences to provide well-defined subgroupings, the Athabaskan family – especially the Northern group – has been called a "cohesive complex" by Michael Krauss (1973, 1982). Therefore, the ''Stammbaumtheorie'' or family tree model of genetic classification may be inappropriate. The languages of the Southern branch are much more homogeneous and are the only clearly genealogical subgrouping. Debate continues as to whether the Pacific Coast languages form a valid genealogical grouping, or whether this group may instead have internal branches that are tied to different subgroups in Northern Athabaskan. The position of Kwalhioqua–Clatskanai is also debated, since it may fall in either the Pacific Coast group – if that exists – or into the Northern group. The records of Nicola are so poor – Krauss describes them as "too few and too wretched" (Krauss 2005) – that it is difficult to make any reliable conclusions about it. Nicola may be intermediate between Kwalhioqua–Tlatskanai and Chilcotin. Similarly to Nicola, there is very limited documentation on Tsetsaut. Consequently, it is difficult to place it in the family with much certainty. Athabaskanists have concluded that it is a Northern Athabaskan language consistent with its geographical occurrence, and that it might have some relation to its distant neighbor Tahltan. Tsetsaut, however, shares its primary hydronymic suffix ("river, stream") with Sekani, Beaver, and Tsuut'ina – PA *-ɢah – rather than with that of Tahltan, Tagish, Kaska, and North and South Tutchone – PA *-tuʼ (Kari 1996; Kari, Fall, & Pete 2003:39). The ambiguity surrounding Tsetsaut is why it is placed in its own subgroup in the Rice–Goddard–Mithun classification. For detailed lists including languages, dialects, and subdialects, see the respective articles on the three major groups:

Northern Athabaskan Northern Athabaskan is a geographic sub-grouping of the Athabaskan language family spoken by indigenous peoples in the northern part of North America, particularly in Alaska (Alaskan Athabaskans), Yukon, and the Northwest Territories. The Northe ...

, Pacific Coast Athabaskan,

Southern Athabaskan Southern Athabaskan (also Apachean) is a subfamily of Athabaskan languages spoken primarily in the Southwestern United States (including Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Utah) with two outliers in Oklahoma and Texas. The language is spoken to a ...

. For the remainder of this article, the conventional three-way geographic grouping will be followed except as noted.

Northern Athabaskan

The Northern Athabaskan languages are the largest group in the Athabaskan family, although this group varies internally about as much as do languages in the entire family. The

urheimat In historical linguistics, the homeland or ''Urheimat'' (, from German '' ur-'' "original" and ''Heimat'', home) of a proto-language is the region in which it was spoken before splitting into different daughter languages. A proto-language is the r ...

of the Athabaskan family is most likely in the

Tanana Valley The Tanana Valley is a lowland region in central Alaska in the United States, on the north side of the Alaska Range, where the Tanana River emerges from the mountains. Traditional inhabitants of the valley are Tanana Athabaskans of Alaskan Athaba ...

of east-central Alaska. There are many homologies between Proto-Athabaskan vocabulary and patterns reflected in archaeological sites such as Upward Sun, Swan Point and Broken Mammoth (Kari 2010). The Northern Athabaskan group also contains the most linguistically conservative languages, particularly Koyukon, Ahtna, Dena'ina, and Dakelh/Carrier (Leer 2008). * ''Southern Alaskan subgroup'' : 1.

Ahtna The Ahtna (also Ahtena, Atna, Ahtna-kohtaene, or Copper River) are an Alaska Native Athabaskan people of the Athabaskan-speaking ethnolinguistic group. The people's homeland called Atna Nenn', is located in the Copper River area of souther ...

: 2. Dena'ina (also known as Tanaina, Kenaitze) * ''Central Alaska–Yukon subgroup'' : 3.

Deg Xinag Deg Xinag (Deg Hitan) is a Northern Athabaskan language spoken by the Deg Hitʼan peoples of the GASH region. The GASH region consists of the villages of Grayling, Anvik, Shageluk, and Holy Cross along the lower Yukon River The Yukon River ( ...

(also known as Deg Hitʼan, Ingalik (deprecated)) : 4.

Holikachuk Holikachuk (also Innoko, Organized Village of Grayling, Innoka-khotana, Tlëgon-khotana) are a Yupikized Alaska Native Athabaskan people of the Athabaskan-speaking ethnolinguistic group to western Alaska. Their native territory includes the ...

(also known as Innoko) : 5.

Koyukon The Koyukon (russian: Коюконы) are an Alaska Native Athabascan people of the Athabascan-speaking ethnolinguistic group. Their traditional territory is along the Koyukuk and Yukon rivers where they subsisted for thousands of years by ...

(also known as Denaakkʼe, Tenʼa) : 6. Upper Kuskokwim (also known as Kolchan) : 7.

Lower Tanana Lower Tanana (also Tanana and/or Middle Tanana) is an endangered language spoken in Interior Alaska in the lower Tanana River villages of Minto and Nenana. Of about 380 Tanana people in the two villages, about 30 still speak the language. As of ...

and Middle Tanana (also known as Tanana) : 8.

Tanacross Tanacross (also Transitional Tanana) is an endangered Athabaskan language spoken by fewer than 60 people in eastern Interior Alaska. Overview The word Tanacross (from " Tanana Crossing") has been used to refer both to a village in eastern ...

: 9.

Upper Tanana Upper Tanana (also known as Tabesna, Nabesna or Nee'aanèegn') is an endangered Athabaskan language spoken in eastern Interior Alaska, United States, mainly in the villages of Northway, Tetlin, and Tok, and adjacent areas of the Canadian ter ...

: 10.

Southern Tutchone The Southern Tutchone are a First Nations people of the Athabaskan-speaking ethnolinguistic group living mainly in the southern Yukon in Canada. The Southern Tutchone language, traditionally spoken by the Southern Tutchone people, is a variety o ...

: 11.

Northern Tutchone The Northern Tutchone are a First Nations people of the Athabaskan-speaking ethnolinguistic group living mainly in the central Yukon in Canada. Language and culture The Northern Tutchone language, originally spoken by the Northern Tutchone p ...

: 12. Gwich'in (also known as Kutchin, Loucheux, Tukudh) : 13.

Hän The Hän, Han or Hwëch'in / Han Hwech’in (meaning "People of the River, i.e. Yukon River", in English also Hankutchin) are a First Nations people of Canada and an Alaska Native Athabaskan people of the United States; they are part of the At ...

(also known as Han) * ''Northwestern Canada subgroup'' : A. Tahltan–Tagish–Kaska (also known as "Cordilleran") :: 14.

Tagish The Tagish or Tagish Khwáan ( Tagish: ; tli, Taagish ḵwáan) are a First Nations people of the Athabaskan-speaking ethnolinguistic group that lived around Tagish Lake and Marsh Lake, in Yukon of Canada. The Tagish intermarried heavily with ...

:: 15.

Tahltan The Tahltan or Nahani are a First Nations people of the Athabaskan-speaking ethnolinguistic group who live in northern British Columbia around Telegraph Creek, Dease Lake, and Iskut. The Tahltan constitute the fourth division of the ''Nahane' ...

(also known as Nahanni) :: 16.

Kaska The Kaska or Kaska Dena are a First Nations people of the Athabaskan-speaking ethnolinguistic group living mainly in northern British Columbia and the southeastern Yukon in Canada. The Kaska language, originally spoken by the Kaska, is an Athabas ...

(also known as Nahanni) : 17.

Sekani Sekani or Tse’khene are a First Nations people of the Athabaskan-speaking ethnolinguistic group in the Northern Interior of British Columbia. Their territory includes the Finlay and Parsnip River drainages of the Rocky Mountain Trench. The nei ...

(also known as Tsekʼehne) : 18.

Dane-zaa The Dane-zaa (ᑕᓀᖚ, also spelled Dunne-za, or Tsattine) are an Athabaskan-speaking group of First Nations people. Their traditional territory is around the Peace River in Alberta and British Columbia, Canada. Today, about 1,600 Dane-zaa resi ...

(also known as Beaver) : B. Slave–Hare :: 19. Slavey (also known as Southern Slavey) :: 20. Mountain (Northern Slavey) :: 21. Bearlake (Northern Slavey) :: 22. Hare (Northern Slavey) : 23. Dogrib (also known as Tłįchǫ Yatiì) : 24.

Dene Suline Chipewyan or Denesuline (ethnonym: ), often simply called Dene, is the language spoken by the Chipewyan people of northwestern Canada. It is categorized as part of the Northern Athabaskan languages, Northern Athabaskan language family. Dënës ...

(also known as Chipewyan, Dëne Sųłiné, Dene Soun'liné) Very little is known about Tsetsaut, and for this reason it is routinely placed in its own tentative subgroup. * ''Tsetsaut subgroup'' : 25. Tsetsaut (also known as Tsʼetsʼaut, Wetalh) * ''Central British Columbia subgroup'' (also known as "British Columbian" in contrast with "Cordilleran" = Tahltan–Tagish–Kaska) : 26. Babine–Witsuwit'en (also known as Northern Carrier, Bulkley Valley/Lakes District) : 27.

Dakelh The Dakelh (pronounced ) or Carrier are the indigenous people of a large portion of the Central Interior of British Columbia, Canada. The "Carrier" name was derived from an English translation of ''Aghele'', the name from the neighbouring Sekani ...

(also known as Carrier) : 28. Chilcotin (also known as Tsilhqot'in) The Nicola language is so poorly attested that it is impossible to determine its position within the family. It has been proposed by some to be an isolated branch of Chilcotin. : 29. Nicola (also known as Stuwix, Similkameen) * ''Sarsi subgroup'' : 30. Tsuut'ina (also known as Sarcee, Sarsi, Tsuu T'ina) The Kwalhioqua–Clatskanie language is debatably part of the Pacific Coast subgroup, but has marginally more in common with the Northern Athabaskan languages than it does with the Pacific Coast languages (Leer 2005). It thus forms a notional sort of bridge between the Northern Athabaskan languages and the Pacific Coast languages, along with Nicola (Krauss 1979/2004). * ''Kwalhioqua–Clatskanie subgroup'' (also called ''Lower Columbia Athapaskan'') : 31. Kwalhioqua–Clatskanie (also known as Kwalhioqua–Tlatskanie or Kwalhioqua-Tlatskanai)

Pacific Coast Athabaskan

* ''California Athabaskan subgroup'' : 32.

Hupa Hupa (Yurok language term: Huep'oola' / Huep'oolaa = "Hupa people") are a Native American people of the Athabaskan-speaking ethnolinguistic group in northwestern California. Their endonym is Natinixwe, also spelled Natinook-wa, meaning "Peopl ...

(also known as Hupa-Chilula, Chilula, Whilkut) : 33. Mattole–Bear River : 34. Eel River (also known as Wailaki, Lassik, Nongatl, Sinkyone) : 35. Kato (also known as Cahto) * ''Oregon Athabaskan subgroup'' : 36.

Upper Umpqua Upper may refer to: * Shoe upper or ''vamp'', the part of a shoe on the top of the foot * Stimulant, drugs which induce temporary improvements in either mental or physical function or both * ''Upper'', the original film title for the 2013 found fo ...

(also known as Etnemitane) : 37a. Lower Rogue River and Upper Coquille (also known as Tututni, Chasta Costa, Euchre Creek and Coquille) : 37b. Upper Rogue River (also known as Galice/Taltushtuntede, Applegate/Dakubetede) : 38.

Tolowa The Tolowa people or Taa-laa-wa Dee-ni’ are a Native American people of the Athabaskan-speaking ethno-linguistic group. Two rancherias (Smith River and Elk Valley) still reside in their traditional territory in northwestern California. Tho ...

(also known as Smith River, Chetco, Siletz Dee-ni)

Southern Athabaskan

* ''Plains Apache subgroup'' : 39.

Plains Apache The Plains Apache are a small Southern Athabaskan group who live on the Southern Plains of North America, in close association with the linguistically unrelated Kiowa Tribe. Today, they are centered in Southwestern Oklahoma and Northern Texas an ...

(also known as Kiowa-Apache) * ''Western Apachean subgroup'' : A. Chiricahua–Mescalero :: 40.

Chiricahua Chiricahua ( ) is a band of Apache Native Americans. Based in the Southern Plains and Southwestern United States, the Chiricahua (Tsokanende ) are related to other Apache groups: Ndendahe (Mogollon, Carrizaleño), Tchihende (Mimbreño), Sehende ...

:: 41.

Mescalero Mescalero or Mescalero Apache ( apm, Naa'dahéńdé) is an Apache tribe of Southern Athabaskan–speaking Native Americans. The tribe is federally recognized as the Mescalero Apache Tribe of the Mescalero Apache Reservation, located in south-cen ...

: 42.

(also known as Navaho) : 43.

Western Apache The Western Apache live primarily in east central Arizona, in the United States. Most live within reservations. The Fort Apache Indian Reservation, San Carlos Apache Indian Reservation, Yavapai-Apache Nation, Tonto Apache, and the Fort McDowe ...

(also known as Coyotero Apache) * ''Eastern Apachean subgroup'' : 44.

Jicarilla Jicarilla Apache (, Jicarilla language: Jicarilla Dindéi), one of several loosely organized autonomous bands of the Eastern Apache, refers to the members of the Jicarilla Apache Nation currently living in New Mexico and speaking a Southern Athaba ...

: 45. Lipan

Sicoli & Holton (2014)

Using

computational phylogenetic Computational phylogenetics is the application of computational algorithms, methods, and programs to phylogenetic

methods, Sicoli & Holton (2014) proposed the following classification for the Athabaskan languages based exclusively on typological (non-lexical) data. However, this phylogenetic study was criticized as methodologically flawed by Yanovich (2020), since it did not employ sufficient input data to generate a robust tree that does not depend on the initial choice of the "tree prior", i.e. the model for the tree generation. * (

) * (

Tlingit The Tlingit ( or ; also spelled Tlinkit) are indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest Coast of North America. Their language is the Tlingit language (natively , pronounced ),

–

) * South Pacific Coast Athabaskan (California) * (unnamed clade) ** '' Tsetsaut'' ** '' Upper Kuskokwim'' ** ''

'' ** '' Dena'ina'' ** West Alaska (Koyukon) *** ''

'' *** ''

'', ''

'' ** North Pacific Coast (Oregon) ** Alaska-Canada-2 *** '' Gwich’in'' *** '' Dogrib'' *** ''North

'' *** ''

Carrier Carrier may refer to: Entertainment * ''Carrier'' (album), a 2013 album by The Dodos * ''Carrier'' (board game), a South Pacific World War II board game * ''Carrier'' (TV series), a ten-part documentary miniseries that aired on PBS in April 20 ...

'', ''

'' (''Beaver'') ** Plains-Apachean *** '' Sarsi'' ***

** Alaska-Canada-1 *** Tanana **** ''

'' **** ''

'', ''

'' *** Northwestern Canada **** ''

'' **** ''South

'', ''

'' **** ''

Dene The Dene people () are an Aboriginal peoples in Canada, indigenous group of First Nations in Canada, First Nations who inhabit the northern Boreal forest of Canada, boreal and Arctic regions of Canada. The Dene speak Northern Athabaskan languag ...

'', ''

Proto-Athabaskan

Proto-Athabaskan Proto-Athabaskan is the reconstructed ancestor of the Athabaskan languages. Phonology The reconstruction of Proto-Athabaskan phonology is still under active debate. This section attempts to summarize the less controversial parts of the Proto-At ...

is the reconstructed ancestor of the Athabaskan languages.

References

Bibliography

* Boas, Franz. 1917. ''Grammatical notes on the language of the Tlingit Indians''. (University Museum Anthropological Publications 8.1). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
California Indian Library Collections Project
* Campbell, Lyle. 1997. ''American Indian languages: The historical linguistics of Native America''. New York: Oxford University Press. . * Cook, Eung-Do. 1981. Athabaskan linguistics: Proto-Athapaskan phonology. ''Annual Review of Anthropology'' 10. 253–73. * Cook, Eung-Do. 1992. Athabaskan languages. In William Bright (ed.), ''International encyclopedia of linguistics'', 122–28. Oxford: Oxford University Press. . * Cook, Eung-Do & Keren Rice. 1989. Introduction. In Eung-Do Cook & Keren Rice (eds.), ''Athapaskan linguistics: Current perspectives on a language family'', 1–61. (Trends in Linguistics, State-of-the-art Reports 15). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. . * * Hoijer, Harry. 1938. The southern Athapaskan languages. ''American Anthropologist'' 40(1). 75–87. * Hoijer, Harry. 1956
The Chronology of the Athapaskan languages
''International Journal of American Linguistics'' 22(4). 219–32. * Hoijer, Harry. 1963. The Athapaskan languages. In Harry Hoijer (ed.), ''Studies in the Athapaskan languages'', 1–29. Berkeley: University of California Press. * Hoijer, Harry (ed.). 1963. ''Studies in the Athapaskan languages''. (University of California publications in linguistics 29). Berkeley: University of California Press. * Hoijer, Harry. 1971. The position of the Apachean languages in the Athpaskan stock. In Keith H. Basso & M. E. Opler (eds.), ''Apachean culture history and ethnology'', 3–6. (Anthropological papers of the University of Arizona 21). Tucson: University of Arizona Press. * Hymes, Dell H. 1957. A note on Athapaskan glottochronology. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' 23(4). 291–97. * Kari, James. 1989. Affix positions and zones in the Athapaskan verb complex: Ahtna and Navajo. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' 55(4). 424–454. * Kari, James. 1996. A Preliminary View of Hydronymic Districts in Northern Athabaskan Prehistory. Names 44:253–71. * Kari, James. 2010. The concept of geolinguistic conservatism in Na-Dene prehistory . In ''The Dene–Yeniseian Connection''. (Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska). Vol. 5, new series. pp. 194–222. * Kari, James, James A. Fall, & Shem Pete. 2003. ''Shem Pete's Alaska: The territory of the Upper Cook Inlet Denaʼina''. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska Press. (cloth); (pbk.). * Kari, James and Ben A. Potter. (2010). ''The Dene–Yeniseian Connection'', ed. by J. Kari and B. Potter, 1–24. (Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska), new series, vol. 5. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Fairbanks, Department of Anthropology. * Kari, James and Ben A. Potter. (2010). The Dene-Yeniseian Connection: Bridging Asian and North America. In ''The Dene–Yeniseian Connection'', ed. by J. Kari and B. Potter, 1–24. (Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska), new series, vol. 5. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Fairbanks, Department of Anthropology, pp. 1–24. * Kibrik, Andrej A. 1993. "Transitivity increase in Athabaskan languages". In Bernard Comrie & Maria Polinsky (eds.), ''Causatives and Transitivity'', 47–68. (Studies in Language Comparison Series 23.) Philadelphia: John Benjamins. (hbk). * Kibrik, Andrej A. 1996. "Transitivity decrease in Navajo and Athabaskan: Actor-affecting propositional derivations". In

Eloise Jelinek Eloise Jelinek (February 2, 1924 in Dallas – December 21, 2007 in Tucson) was an American linguist specializing in the study of syntax. Her 1981 doctoral dissertation at the University of Arizona was titled "On Defining Categories: AUX and PRE ...

, Sally Midgette,

, & Leslie Saxon (eds.) ''Athabaskan language studies: Essays in honor of Robert W. Young'', 259–304. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico. (cloth). * Kibrik, Andrej A. 2001. "A typologically oriented portrait of the Athabaskan language family". Presented at ALT-IV, Santa Barbara, CA. * Krauss, Michael E. 1964. "The proto-Athapaskan–Eyak and the problem of Na-Dene, I: The phonology". ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' 30(2). 118–31. * Krauss, Michael E. 1965. "The proto-Athapaskan–Eyak and the problem of Na-Dene, II: The morphology". ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' 31(1). 18–28. * Krauss, Michael E. 1968. "Noun-classification systems in the Athapaskan, Eyak, Tlingit and Haida verbs". ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' 34(3). 194–203. * Krauss, Michael E. 1969. ''On the classification in the Athapascan, Eyak, and the Tlingit verb''. Baltimore: Waverly Press, Indiana University. * Krauss, Michael E. 1973. Na-Dene. In Thomas A. Sebeok (ed.), ''Linguistics in North America'', 903–78. (Current trends in linguistics 1.) The Hague: Mouton. (Reprinted as Krauss 1976.) * Krauss, Michael E. 1976''a''." Na-Dene". In Thomas A. Sebeok (ed.), ''Native languages of the Americas'', 283–358. New York: Plenum. Reprint of Krauss 1973. * Krauss, Michael E. 1976''b''. ''Proto-Athabaskan–Eyak fricatives and the first person singular''. Unpublished manuscript. * Krauss, Michael E. 1979. "Na-Dene and Eskimo". In Lyle Campbell & Marianne Mithun (eds.), ''The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment''. Austin: University of Texas Press. * Krauss, Michael E. 1979. ''Athabaskan tone''. Unpublished manuscript. Published with revisions as Krauss 2005. * Krauss, Michael E. 1981. ''On the history and use of comparative Athapaskan linguistics''. Unpublished manuscript. * Krauss, Michael E. 1986. "Edward Sapir and Athabaskan linguistics". In W. Cowan, M. Foster, & K. Koerner (eds.), ''New perspectives in language, culture, and personality'', 147–90. Amsterdam: Benjamins. * Krauss, Michael E. 1987. ''The name Athabaskan''. In Peter L. Corey (ed.), ''Faces, Voices & Dreams: A celebration of the centennial of the Sheldon Jackson Museum, Sitka, Alaska, 1888–1988'', 105–08. Sitka, AK: Division of Alaska State Museums and the Friends of the Alaska State Museum
PDF version available from the Alaska Native Language Center
* Krauss, Michael E. 2005. Athabaskan tone. In Sharon Hargus & Keren Rice (eds.), ''Athabaskan Prosody'', 51–136. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Revision of unpublished manuscript dated 1979. * Krauss, Michael E. & Victor Golla. 1981. Northern Athapaskan languages. In J. Helm (ed.), ''Subarctic'', 67–85. (Handbook of North American Indians 6). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. * Krauss, Michael E. & Jeff Leer. 1981. ''Athabaskan, Eyak, and Tlingit sonorants''. (Alaska Native Language Center research papers 5). Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska, Alaska Native Language Center. * Leer, Jeff. 1979. ''Proto-Athabaskan verb stem variation I: Phonology''. (Alaska Native Language Center research papers 1). Fairbanks, AK: Alaska Native Language Center. * Leer, Jeff. 1982. ''Navajo and comparative Athabaskan stem list''. Unpublished manuscript
ANLA CA965L1982
* Leer, Jeff. 1990. Tlingit: A portmanteau language family? In

Philip Baldi Philip Baldi (born 1946) is an American linguist and classical scholar specializing in Indo-European studies. He is Professor Emeritus of Linguistics and Classics at Pennsylvania State University. Biography Baldi was born in Scranton, Pennsylvan ...

(ed.), ''Linguistic change and reconstruction methodology'', 73–98. (Trends in Linguistics: Studies and monographs 45). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. . * Leer, Jeff. 2005. How stress shapes the stem-suffix complex in Athabaskan. In Sharon Hargus & Keren Rice (eds.), ''Athabaskan Prosody'', 278–318. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. * Leer, Jeff. 2008. Recent advances in AET comparison
ANLA CA965L2008b
* Leer, Jeff. 2010. The Palatal Series in Athabascan-Eyak-Tlingit, with an Overview of the Basic Sound Correspondences. In ''The Dene–Yeniseian Connection'', ed. by J. Kari and B. Potter, p. 168-193. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska, new series, vol. 5. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Fairbanks, Department of Anthropology. * Mithun, Marianne. 1999. ''The languages of Native North America''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (hbk); (pbk). * Naish, Constance & Gillian Story. 1973. ''Tlingit verb dictionary''. Fairbanks, AK: Alaska Native Language Center. . * Rice, Keren. 1997. "A reexamination of Proto-Athabaskan y". ''Anthropological Linguistics'' 39(3). 423–26. * Rice, Keren. 2000. ''Morpheme order and semantic scope: Word formation in the Athapaskan verb''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. (hbk); (pbk). * Sapir, Edward. 1915. The Na-Dene languages, a preliminary report. ''American Anthropologist'' 17(3). 534–58. * Sapir, Edward. 1916. ''Time perspective in aboriginal American culture: A study in method''. (Anthropology series 13; Memoirs of the Canadian Geological Survey 90). Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau. * Sapir, Edward. 1931. "The concept of phonetic law as tested in primitive languages by Leonard Bloomfield". In S. A. Rice (ed.), ''Methods in social science: A case book'', 297–306. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. * Sapir, Edward. 1936. Linguistic evidence suggestive of the northern origin of the Navaho. ''American Anthropologist'' 38(2). 224–35. * Sapir, Edward, & Victor Golla. 2001. "Hupa Texts, with Notes and Lexicon". In Victor Golla & Sean O'Neill (eds.), ''Collected Works of Edward Sapir'', vol. 14, ''Northwest California Linguistics'', 19–1011. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. * Saville-Troike, Muriel. 1985. On variable data and phonetic law: A case from Sapir's Athabaskan correspondences. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' 51(4). 572–74. * Sturtevant, William C. (ed.). 1978–present. ''Handbook of North American Indians'', vols. 1–20. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Vols. 1–3, 16, 18–20 not yet published. * Vajda, Edward. 2010. "A Siberian Link with Na-Dene Languages". In ''The Dene–Yeniseian Connection'', ed. by J. Kari and B. Potter, 33–99. Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska, new series, vol. 5. Fairbanks: University of Alaska Fairbanks, Department of Anthropology. * Vajda, Edward J. (2011)
''Oxford Bibliographies Online'': "Dene-Yeniseian"

Languages

Alaskan Athabaskan languages

External classification

Internal classification

Overview

Northern Athabaskan

Pacific Coast Athabaskan

Southern Athabaskan

Sicoli & Holton (2014)

Proto-Athabaskan

See also

References

Bibliography

Further reading

External links