Daeodon Shoshonensis

''Daeodon'' is an extinct genus of entelodont even-toed ungulates that inhabited North America about 23 to 20 million years ago during the latest Oligocene and earliest Miocene. The type species is ''Daeodon shoshonensis'', described by a very questionable holotype by Cope. Some authors synonimize it with ''Dinohyus hollandi'' and several other species (see below), but due to the lack of diagnostic material, this is questionable at best.

Another large member of this family, similar in size to ''Daeodon'', is the Asian ''Paraentelodon,'' but it is known by very incomplete material.

Taxonomy

The genus ''Daeodon'' was erected by the American anatomist and paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope in 1878. He classified it as a perissodactyl and thought that it was closely related to '' Menodus''. This classification persisted until the description of ''"Elotherium" calkinsi'' in 1905, a very similar and much more complete animal from the same rocks, which was promptly assigned as a species of ''Daeodon'' by Peterson (1909). This led to ''Daeodon''s reclassification as a member of the family Entelodontidae. The exact relationships between ''Daeodon'' and other entelodonts are not well understood; some authors (Lucas et al., 1998) consider the greater morphological similarity of ''Daeodon'' to ''Paraentelodon'' rather than to earlier North American entelodonts, like ''Archaeotherium'', as evidence for ''Daeodon'' being a descendant from a Late Oligocene immigration of large Asian entelodonts to North America. However, the existence of distinct specimens of ''Archaeotherium'' showing characters reminiscent of those present in both ''Paraentelodon'' and ''Daeodon'' raises the possibility of both genera actually descending from a North American common ancestor. Although not specified in Cope's original description, the name ''Daeodon'' comes from the Greek words , meaning "hostile" or "dreadful" and , meaning "teeth".

Species

The type species of ''Daeodon'' is ''D. shohonensis,'' which is based on a fragment of a lower jaw from the John Day Formation of Oregon. Several other species were assigned to the genus in the subsequent decades, like ''D. calkinsi'', ''D. mento'' and ''D. minor''. Since 1945, it had been suggested that two other taxa were actually junior synonyms of ''Daeodon'', but the formalization of this referral didn't take place until the work of Lucas et al. (1998). ''Ammodon leidyanum'', named by Cope's rival, O. C. Marsh, and ''Dinohyus hollandi,'' a complete skeleton from the Agate Springs quarry of Nebraska, were found to be indistinguishable from each other and in turn both were indistinguishable from ''D. shoshonensis''. With the exception of ''D. calkinsi'', which was tentatively excluded from ''Daeodon'', the other previously recognized species of ''Daeodon'' were also synonymized to ''D. shoshonensis''. That same year, an obscure entelodont, ''Boochoerus humerosum'', was also synonymized to ''Daeodon'' by Foss and Fremd (1998) and, albeit its status as a distinct species was retained, they note that the differences could still be attributed to individual or population variation or sexual dimorphism.

Description

''Daeodon shoshonensis'' is the largest-known entelodont; known adult individuals had skulls about long and were about tall at the shoulders. It's differentiated from other entelodonts by a suite of unique dental characters, the shape and relatively small size of the cheekbone flanges of its skull compared to those of ''Archaeotherium'', and the small size of its chin tubercle, as well as features of its carpus and tarsus and the fusion of the bones of the lower leg. Like other entelodonts, its limbs were long and slender with the bones of the foreleg fused together and with only two toes on each foot. It also had a relatively lightly constructed neck for the size of its head, whose weight was mostly supported by muscles and tendons attached to the tall spines of the thoracic vertebrae, similar to those of modern-day bison and white rhinoceros.

Paleoecology

Habitat

''Daeodon'' had a wide range in North America, with many fossils found in Agate Fossil Beds, representing an environment in a transition period between dense forests and expansive prairie, likely a major cause of their extinction in the middle Miocene. It adapted to the grassland with a more cursorial body plan than more basal entelodonts like ''Archaeotherium,'' losing their dewclaws entirely, proximally fused metacarpals, and similar shoulder musculature to bison.

The Agate Springs bonebed was a floodplain environment with wet and dry seasons. ''Daeodon'' shared this landscape with small gazelle-like camels, the large browsing chalicothere ''Moropus'', several species of predatory coyote- to wolf-sized amphicyonids that lived in packs, land beavers (''Palaeocastor'') that filled the ecological niche of modern prairie dogs, and thousands of small herd-living rhinoceros. The rhinos suffered massive periodic die-offs in the dry season, but ''Daeodon'' fossils are rare, which suggests they were neither social animals nor especially attracted to carrion.

Diet

''Daeodon'' was omnivorous like all other entelodonts. Enamel patterns suggest eating of nuts, roots, and vines, as well as meat and bones. The superficial similarity to peccaries, hippos, and bears implies a wide range in terms of what plants ''Daeodon'' may have been eating. The dry seasons of North America at the time could get very harsh, so they may have supplemented their water intake by eating grape vines. The extent of its carnivory is debated, but tooth wear suggests they specialized in crushing bone and ripping meat, and bite marks on chalicothere bones suggest they either hunted or scavenged large herbivores. Foss (2001) argues its head was far too heavy to be effective in taking down large prey so it must have relied exclusively on scavenging, but its bison-like adaptations for running, the stereoscopic vision characteristic of predators, and evidence of predation in entelodonts calls this interpretation into question. The uncertainty of their diets suggests they were likely opportunistic omnivores similar to bears, eating whatever they need depending on the circumstance.Foss, S. E., 2001, Systematics and paleobiology of the Entelodontidae (Mammalia, Artiodactyla) h.D. dissertation Dekalb, Northern Illinois University

Behavior

Entelodonts partook in intraspecific face biting, known from tooth marks on their skulls. Males would fight for dominance, possibly using their mandibular tubercles as protection in addition to their function as muscle attachments. Sexual dimorphism of the jugal protections exist in ''Archaeotherium,'' and with a smaller ''Daeodon'' sample size, such dimorphism can't be ruled out for ''Daeodon''. If dimorphic, the function of the expanded jugals was likely for display, supporting large preorbital glands similar to those forest hogs possessed for chemical communication.

In culture

''Daeodon'' appears in the game Ark: Survival Evolved.

References

{{Taxonbar, from=Q133085

Entelodonts
Miocene even-toed ungulates
Miocene mammals of North America
Oligocene mammals of North America
Arikareean
Hemingfordian
White River Fauna
Burdigalian genus extinctions
Chattian genus first appearances
Fossil taxa described in 1878
Taxa named by Edward Drinker Cope
Prehistoric even-toed ungulate genera