Characteristics
Individuals who are effective and appropriate in intercultural situations display high levels of cultural self-awareness and understand the influence of culture on behavior, values, and beliefs. Cognitive processes imply the understanding of situational and environmental aspects of intercultural interactions and the application of intercultural awareness, which is affected by the understanding of the self and own culture. Self-awareness in intercultural interactions requires self-monitoring to censor anything not acceptable to another culture.Creating intercultural competence
Intercultural competence is determined by the presence of cognitive, affective, and behavioral abilities that directly shape communication across cultures. These essential abilities can be separated into five specific skills that are obtained through education and experience: # Mindfulness: the ability of being cognitively aware of how the communication and interaction with others is developed. It is important to focus more in the process of the interaction than its outcome while maintaining in perspective the desired communication goals. For example, it would be better to formulate questions such as "What can I say or do to help this process?" rather than "What do they mean?" # Cognitive flexibility: the ability of creating new categories of information rather than keeping old categories. This skill includes opening to new information, taking more than one perspective, and understanding personal ways of interpreting messages and situations. # Tolerance for ambiguity: the ability to maintain focus in situations that are not clear rather than becoming anxious and to methodically determine the best approach as the situation evolves. Generally, low-tolerance individuals look for information that supports their beliefs while high-tolerance individuals look for information that gives an understanding of the situation and others. # Behavioral flexibility: the ability to adapt and accommodate behaviors to a different culture. Although knowing a second language could be important for this skill, it does not necessarily translate into cultural adaptability. The individual must be willing to assimilate the new culture. # Cross-cultural empathy: the ability to visualize with the imagination the situation of another person from an intellectual and emotional point of view. Demonstrating empathy includes the abilities of connecting emotionally with people, showing compassion, thinking in more than one perspective, and listening actively.Assessment
The assessment of cross-cultural competence is a field that is rife with controversy. One survey identified 86 assessment instruments for 3C. A United States Army Research Institute study narrowed the list down to ten quantitative instruments that were suitable for further exploration of their reliability and validity. The following characteristics are tested and observed for the assessment of intercultural competence as an existing ability or as the potential to develop it: ambiguity tolerance, openness to contacts, flexibility in behavior, emotional stability, motivation to perform,Quantitative assessment instruments
Three examples of quantitative assessment instruments are: * the Intercultural Development Inventory * the Cultural Intelligence (CQ) Measurement * theQualitative assessment instruments
Research in the area of 3C assessment, while thin, points to the value of qualitative assessment instruments in concert with quantitative ones. Qualitative instruments, such as scenario-based assessments, are useful for gaining insight into intercultural competence. Intercultural coaching frameworks, such as the ICCA (Healthcare
The provision of culturally tailored health care can improveCross-cultural competence
Cross-cultural competence (3C) has generated confusing and contradictory definitions because it has been studied by a wide variety of academic approaches and professional fields. One author identified eleven different terms that have some equivalence to 3C: cultural savvy, astuteness, appreciation, literacy or fluency, adaptability, terrain, expertise, competency, awareness, intelligence, and understanding.Selmeski, B.R. (2007). ''Military cross-cultural competence: Core concepts and individual development''. Kingston: Royal Military College of Canada Centre for Security, Armed Forces, & Society. The United States Army Research Institute, which is currently engaged in a study of 3C has defined it as "A set of cognitive, behavioral, and affective/motivational components that enable individuals to adapt effectively in intercultural environments".Abbe, A., Gulick, L.M.V., & Herman, J.L. (2007). ''Cross-cultural competence in Army leaders: A conceptual and empirical foundation''. Washington, DC: U.S. Army Research Institute. Organizations in academia, business, health care, government security, and developmental aid agencies have all sought to use 3C in one way or another. Poor results have often been obtained due to a lack of rigorous study of 3C and a reliance on " common sense" approaches. Cross-cultural competence does not operate in a vacuum, however. One theoretical construct posits that 3C, language proficiency, and regional knowledge are distinct skills that are inextricably linked, but to varying degrees depending on the context in which they are employed. In educational settings, Bloom's affective and cognitive taxonomies serve as an effective framework for describing the overlapping areas among these three disciplines: at the receiving and knowledge levels, 3C can operate with near-independence from language proficiency and regional knowledge. But, as one approaches the internalizing and evaluation levels, the overlapping areas approach totality. The development of intercultural competence is mostly based on the individual's experiences while he or she is communicating with different cultures. When interacting with people from other cultures, the individual experiences certain obstacles that are caused by differences in cultural understanding between two people from different cultures. Such experiences may motivate the individual to acquire skills that can help him to communicate his point of view to an audience belonging to a different cultural ethnicity and background.Intercultural competence models
Intercultural Communicative Language Teaching Model. In response to the needs to develop EFL learners’ ICC in the context of Asia, a theoretical framework, which is an instructional design (ISD) model ADDIE with five stages (Analyze – Design – Develop – Implement – Evaluate) is employed as a guideline in order to construct the ICLT model for EFL learners. The ICLT model is an on-going process of ICC acquisition. There are three parts: Language-Culture, the main training process. (Input – Notice – Practice – Output), and the ICC, which are systematically integrated. The second part is the main part consisting of four teaching steps to facilitate learners’ ICC development, and each step reflects a step of the knowledge scaffolding and constructing process to facilitate learners’ ICC development.Immigrants and international students
A salient issue, especially for people living in countries other than their native country, is the issue of which culture they should follow: their native culture or the one in their new surroundings.Ethnocentrism
Another issue that stands out in intercultural communication is the attitude stemming from ethnocentrism. LeVine and Campbell defines ethnocentrism as people's tendency to view their culture or in-group as superior to other groups, and to judge those groups to their standards. With ethnocentric attitudes, those incapable to expand their view of different cultures could create conflict between groups. Ignorance to diversity and cultural groups contributes to prevention of peaceful interaction in a fast-paced globalizing world. The counterpart of ethnocentrism is ethnorelativism: the ability to see multiple values, beliefs, norms etc. in the world as cultural rather than universal; being able to understand and accept different cultures as equally valid as ones' own. It is a mindset that moves beyond in-group out-group to see all groups as equally important and valid and individuals to be seen in terms of their own cultural context.Cultural differences
According toIndividualism versus collectivism
*Masculinity versus femininity
* Masculine Cultures ** Value behaviors that indicate assertiveness and wealth; ** Judge people based on the degree of ambition and achievement; ** General behaviors are associated with male behavior; ** Sex roles are clearly defined and sexual inequality is acceptable; ** Masculine cultures include Austria, Italy, Japan, and Mexico. * Feminine Cultures ** Value behaviors that promote the quality of life such as caring for others and nurturing; ** Gender roles overlap and sexual equality is preferred as the norm; ** Nurturing behaviors are acceptable for both women and men; ** Feminine cultures are Chile, Portugal, Sweden, and Thailand.Uncertainty avoidance
* Reflects the extent to which members of a society attempt to cope with anxiety by minimizing uncertainty; * Uncertainty avoidance dimension expresses the degree to which a person in society feels comfortable with a sense of uncertainty and ambiguity. ** High uncertainty avoidance cultures *** Countries exhibiting high Uncertainty Avoidance Index or UAI maintain rigid codes of belief and behavior and are intolerant of unorthodox behavior and ideas; *** Members of society expect consensus about national and societal goals; *** Society ensures security by setting extensive rules and keeping more structure; *** High uncertainty avoidance cultures are Greece, Guatemala, Portugal, and Uruguay. ** Low uncertainty avoidance cultures *** Low UAI societies maintain a more relaxed attitude in which practice counts more than principles; *** Low uncertainty avoidance cultures accept and feel comfortable in unstructured situations or changeable environments and try to have as few rules as possible; *** People in these cultures are more tolerant of change and accept risks; *** Low uncertainty avoidance cultures are Denmark, Jamaica, Ireland, and Singapore.Power distance
* Refers to the degree in which cultures accept unequal distribution ofShort-term versus long-term orientation
* Short-term or Monochronic Orientation ** Cultures value tradition, personal stability, maintaining "face", and reciprocity during interpersonal interactions ** People expect quick results after actions ** Historical events and beliefs influence people's actions in the present ** Monochronic cultures are Canada, Philippines, Nigeria, Pakistan, and the United States * Long-term or Polychronic Orientation ** Cultures value persistence, thriftiness, and humility ** People sacrifice immediate gratification for long-term commitments ** Cultures believe that past results do not guarantee for the future and are aware of change ** Polychronic cultures are China, Japan, Brazil, and IndiaCriticisms
Although its goal is to promote understanding between groups of individuals that, as a whole, think differently, it may fail to recognize specific differences between individuals of any given group. Such differences can be more significant than the differences between groups, especially in the case of heterogeneous populations and value systems. Madison (2006) has criticized the tendency of 3C training for its tendency to simplify migration and cross-cultural processes into stages and phases.See also
* Allophilia * Anthropologist *