, logo = Croix de Feu.svg , logo_size = 200px , leader1_title = President , leader1_name =

François de La Rocque François de La Rocque (; 6 October 1885 – 28 April 1946) was the leader of the French right-wing league the Croix de Feu from 1930 to 1936 before he formed the more moderate nationalist French Social Party (1936–1940), which has been ...

, foundation = 11 November 1927 , dissolution = 10 January 1936 , successor = French Social Party , headquarters = Rue de Milan,

Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, most populous city of France, with an estimated population of 2,165,423 residents in 2019 in an area of more than 105 km² (41 sq mi), ma ...

, newspaper = ''Le Flambeau'' , student_wing = ''Groupes Universitaires'' , youth_wing = ''Fils et Filles de Croix-de-Feu'' , wing1_title = Paramilitary wing , wing1 = ''Volontaires Nationaux'' , wing2_title = Woman wing , wing2 = ''Sections Féminines'' , membership_year = 1936 , membership = 15,000 , ideology =

French nationalism French nationalism () usually manifests as cultural nationalism, promoting the cultural unity of France. History French nationalism emerged from its numerous wars with England, which involved the reconquest of the territories that made up Fr ...

Social corporatism

Proto-fascism Proto-fascism refers to the direct predecessor ideologies and cultural movements that influenced and formed the basis of fascism.Spackman, Barbara: ''Fascist Virilities: Rhetoric, Ideology, and Social Fantasy in Italy'', p. 78.Peter Davies, Derek ...

, position = Right-wing to far-right , religion = Roman Catholicism , international = , colours =

Black Black is a color which results from the absence or complete absorption of visible light. It is an achromatic color, without hue, like white and grey. It is often used symbolically or figuratively to represent darkness. Black and white ...

, country = France The Croix-de-Feu (, ''Cross of Fire'') was a

nationalist Nationalism is an idea and movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, nationalism tends to promote the interests of a particular nation (as in a group of people), Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Th ...

French league of the Interwar period, led by Colonel François de la Rocque (1885–1946). After it was dissolved, as were all other leagues during the

Popular Front A popular front is "any coalition of working-class and middle-class parties", including liberal and social democratic ones, "united for the defense of democratic forms" against "a presumed Fascist assault". More generally, it is "a coalition ...

period (1936–38), La Rocque established the '' Parti social français'' (PSF) to replace it.

Beginnings (1927–1930)

The ''Croix-de-Feu'' (CF) were primarily a group of veterans of the

First World War World War I (28 July 1914 11 November 1918), often abbreviated as WWI, was one of the deadliest global conflicts in history. Belligerents included much of Europe, the Russian Empire, the United States, and the Ottoman Empire, with fightin ...

, those who had been awarded the ''

Croix de guerre 1914-1918 Croix (French for "cross") may refer to: Belgium * Croix-lez-Rouveroy, a village in municipality of Estinnes in the province of Hainaut France * Croix, Nord, in the Nord department * Croix, Territoire de Belfort, in the Territoire de Belfort d ...

''. The group was founded on 26 November 1927 by Maurice d'Hartoy, who led it until 1929. The honorary presidency was awarded to writer Jacques Péricard. Also in 1929, the movement acquired its own newspaper, '' Le Flambeau''. At its creation, the movement was subsidized by the wealthy perfumer François Coty, and was hosted in the building of ''

Le Figaro ''Le Figaro'' () is a French daily morning newspaper founded in 1826. It is headquartered on Boulevard Haussmann in the 9th arrondissement of Paris. The oldest national newspaper in France, ''Le Figaro'' is one of three French newspapers of r ...

''. It benefited from the

Catholic Church The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...

's 1926 proscription of the ''

Action Française Action may refer to: * Action (narrative), a literary mode * Action fiction, a type of genre fiction * Action game, a genre of video game Film * Action film, a genre of film * ''Action'' (1921 film), a film by John Ford * ''Action'' (1980 fil ...

'', which prohibited Catholics from supporting the latter. Many

conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy that seeks to promote and to preserve traditional institutions, practices, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilization in ...

Catholics became members of the Croix-de-feu instead, including

Jean Mermoz Jean may refer to: People * Jean (female given name) * Jean (male given name) * Jean (surname) Fictional characters * Jean Grey, a Marvel Comics character * Jean Valjean, fictional character in novel ''Les Misérables'' and its adaptations * J ...

and the young François Mitterrand. Unlike the Unions latines, which had promoted '' algérianité'' (Algerianness) and gained the support of French settlers, the CF adopted a new approach. European settlers in Algeria tended to support authoritarian and imperialist government over French republicanism. They were anti-Semitic and

xenophobic Xenophobia () is the fear or dislike of anything which is perceived as being foreign or strange. It is an expression of perceived conflict between an in-group and out-group and may manifest in suspicion by the one of the other's activities, a ...

. Believing that Algerian Europeans were a new race, they saw themselves as "youthful, virile and brutal" and

Metropolitan France Metropolitan France (french: France métropolitaine or ''la Métropole''), also known as European France (french: Territoire européen de la France) is the area of France which is geographically in Europe. This collective name for the European ...

as "degenerate, effeminate and weak". They often resorted to the use of the force against Muslim and Jewish Algerians. The Croix-de-feu had a massive propaganda campaign that won thousands of members in

Constantine Constantine most often refers to: * Constantine the Great, Roman emperor from 306 to 337, also known as Constantine I *Constantine, Algeria, a city in Algeria Constantine may also refer to: People * Constantine (name), a masculine given name ...

and Algiers. It proposed an alliance with local Muslims and attacked the left. Scholars see that as a tactic to funnel revolutionary and separatist frustrations caused by economic disparity between European settlers and the local Algerian people. It used different propaganda in Oran, more similar to Jules Molle and the Unions latines, because Oran had fewer Muslims and was more anti-Semitic.

Under La Rocque (1930–1936)

Under

Lieutenant-Colonel Lieutenant colonel ( , ) is a rank of commissioned officers in the armies, most marine forces and some air forces of the world, above a major and below a colonel. Several police forces in the United States use the rank of lieutenant colo ...

, who took over in 1930, the Croix-de-Feu took its independence from François Coty and left the building of ''Le Figaro'' for rue de Milan. It organised popular demonstrations in reaction to the Stavisky Affair in the hope of overthrowing the Second ''

Cartel des gauches The Cartel of the Left (french: Cartel des gauches, ) was the name of the governmental alliance between the Radical-Socialist Party, the socialist French Section of the Workers' International (SFIO), and other smaller left-republican parties that ...

, a left-wing coalition government. La Rocque quickly became a hero of the far right, which opposed the influences of

socialism Socialism is a left-wing Economic ideology, economic philosophy and Political movement, movement encompassing a range of economic systems characterized by the dominance of social ownership of the means of production as opposed to Private prop ...

and "hidden

Communism Communism (from Latin la, communis, lit=common, universal, label=none) is a far-left sociopolitical, philosophical, and economic ideology and current within the socialist movement whose goal is the establishment of a communist society, a ...

" but was skeptical about becoming

counterrevolutionary A counter-revolutionary or an anti-revolutionary is anyone who opposes or resists a revolution, particularly one who acts after a revolution in order to try to overturn it or reverse its course, in full or in part. The adjective "counter-revoluti ...

. Under la Rocque, the movement advocated a military effort against the "German danger" and supported

corporatism Corporatism is a collectivist political ideology which advocates the organization of society by corporate groups, such as agricultural, labour, military, business, scientific, or guild associations, on the basis of their common interests. The ...

and an alliance between capital and labour. It enlarged its base by creating a number of secondary associations, thus including non-veterans in its ranks. To counter the monarchist ''

Action française Action may refer to: * Action (narrative), a literary mode * Action fiction, a type of genre fiction * Action game, a genre of video game Film * Action film, a genre of film * ''Action'' (1921 film), a film by John Ford * ''Action'' (1980 fil ...

'' and its slogan ''Politique d'abord!'' "Politics First!"), de la Rocque invented the motto ''Social d'abord!'' ("Social First!"). In his book, ''Le Service Public'' ("Public Service)", which was published in November 1934, he argued in favour of a reform of parliamentary procedures; cooperation between industries according to their branches of activities; a minimum wage and paid holidays;

women's suffrage Women's suffrage is the right of women to vote in elections. Beginning in the start of the 18th century, some people sought to change voting laws to allow women to vote. Liberal political parties would go on to grant women the right to vot ...

(also upheld by the monarchist Action française, which considered that women, often devout, would be more favorable to their conservative thesis) etc. The Croix de Feu was one of the right-wing groups that pushed anti-Semitic politics in 1935. Along with Volontaires Nationaux and others, the Croix de Feu used the political developments in

like the election of Léon Blum, a Jewish Prime Minister, and the

to inflame anti-Semitic sentiment in the colony. The 1936 elections saw the victory of anti-Semitic municipal governments, boycotts against Jewish business (heavily promoted by the Radical Party newspaper '' Le Republicain de Constantine'') and physical violence and attacks against Jews. The Croix de Feu acted in concert with other anti-Semitic parties, including the '' Rassemblement National d'Action Sociale'' led by Abbé Lambert, ''

'' and ''

Parti Populaire français The French Popular Party (french: Parti populaire français) was a French fascist and anti-semitic political party led by Jacques Doriot before and during World War II. It is generally regarded as the most collaborationist party of France. ...

''. Membership in Croix de Feu grew from 2500 in 1933, to 8440 in 1935 and 15000 in 1936. The Croix-de-Feu did not participate to the 1932 demonstrations organised by the Action française and the far-right leagues ''

Jeunesses Patriotes The ''Jeunesses Patriotes'' ("Young Patriots", JP) were a far-right league of France, recruited mostly from university students and financed by industrialists founded in 1924 by Pierre Taittinger. Taittinger took inspiration for the group's creat ...

'' against the payment of the debt to the United States. The Croix-de-feu, however, took part in the massive rally of 6 February 1934, which led to the toppling of the Second ''

'' (Left-Wing Coalition), but La Rocque refused to engage in rioting although parts of the Croix-de-Feu disagreed with him. It had circled the

Palais Bourbon The Palais Bourbon () is the meeting place of the National Assembly, the lower legislative chamber of the French Parliament. It is located in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, on the '' Rive Gauche'' of the Seine, across from the Place de la Con ...

and remained grouped several hundreds metres away from the others rioting leagues. As one of the most important paramilitary associations and because of its anti-Semitic position, the Croix-de-Feu and La Rocque were considered by the political left to be among the most dangerous imitators of Mussolini and Hitler. However, as a result of La Roque's actions during the riots, it subsequently lost prestige among the far-right before it was dissolved by the

government on 18 June 1936.

Parti Social Français (1936–1940)

La Rocque then formed the French Social Party (PSF) as a successor to the dissolved league. Moderate estimates place the membership for the PSF at 500,000 in the buildup to the

Second World War World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposi ...

, which would make it the first French conservative mass party. Although its slogan ''Travail, Famille, Patrie'' ("Work, Family, Fatherland") was later used by

Vichy France Vichy France (french: Régime de Vichy; 10 July 1940 – 9 August 1944), officially the French State ('), was the fascist French state headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II. Officially independent, but with half of its te ...

to replace the Republican slogan '' Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité'', the party had remained eclectic. The party disappeared with the Fall of France without having had the opportunity to profit from its immense popularity.

Second World War

During the

occupation of France The Military Administration in France (german: Militärverwaltung in Frankreich; french: Occupation de la France par l'Allemagne) was an interim occupation authority established by Nazi Germany during World War II to administer the occupied zo ...

, La Rocque joined the

French Resistance The French Resistance (french: La Résistance) was a collection of organisations that fought the German occupation of France during World War II, Nazi occupation of France and the Collaborationism, collaborationist Vichy France, Vichy régim ...

but was the subject of considerable controversy immediately after the war.

Political heritage

The Parti Social Français was the first major conservative party in France (1936–1940). He advocated a presidential regime to end the instability of the parliamentary regime, an economic system founded upon "organised professions" (

) and a social legislation inspired by

Social Christianity Social organisms, including human(s), live collectively in interacting populations. This interaction is considered social whether they are aware of it or not, and whether the exchange is voluntary or not. Etymology The word "social" derives from ...

. Historians now consider that he paved the way to the French Christian democratic parties: the postwar

Popular Republican Movement The Popular Republican Movement (french: Mouvement Républicain Populaire, MRP) was a Christian-democratic political party in France during the Fourth Republic. Its base was the Catholic vote and its leaders included Georges Bidault, Robert Sc ...

(MRP) and the Gaullist Rally for France. The historian William D. Irvine stated: :One of the very few things historians of fascism in France can agree upon is that the Croix de Feu and its successor the Parti Social Francais (PSF) are irrelevant to their subject.

Continuing debate

Historians have argued that the Croix-de-Feu were a distinctly-French variant of the European fascist movement. If the uniformed rightist " Leagues" of the 1930s did not develop into classical Fascism, it was because they represented a shading from conservative right-wing nationalism to extremist fascism, in membership and ideology, distinctive to French inter-war society. Most contemporary

French historians This is a list of French historians limited to those with a biographical entry in either English or French Wikipedia. Major chroniclers, annalists, philosophers, or other writers are included, if they have important historical output. Names are lis ...

(

René Rémond René Rémond (; 30 September 1918 – 14 April 2007) was a French historian, political scientist and political economist. Born in Lons-le-Saunier, Rémond was the Secretary General of Jeunesses étudiantes Catholiques (JEC France in 1943) and a ...

Pierre Milza Pierre Milza (16 April 193228 February 2018) was a French historian. His work focused mainly on the history of Italy, the history of Italian immigration to France and the history of fascism, of which he was a recognized specialist. He was prof ...

and François Sirinelli in particular) do not classify the 1930s "leagues" as a native "French Fascism", particularly the Croix-de-Feu. The organisation is described by Rémond as completely secret in aims with an ideology "As vague as possible." Rémond, the most famous and influential of these postwar historians, distinguishes "Reaction" and the far right from "revolutionary"

fascism Fascism is a far-right, authoritarian, ultra-nationalist political ideology and movement,: "extreme militaristic nationalism, contempt for electoral democracy and political and cultural liberalism, a belief in natural social hierarchy an ...

as an import into France which had few takers. In the 1968 third edition of "''La droite en France''", his major work he defines fascism in Europe as a

revolt of the ''declassés'', a movement of those on half-pay, civilian and military. Everywhere it came to power through social upheavals.... Although with a handful of fascists n 1930s France there was a minority of reactionaries and a great majority of conservatives.

Amongst these he places much smaller groups like the

Faisceau ''Le Faisceau'' (, ''The Fasces'') was a short-lived French fascist political party. It was founded on 11 November 1925 as a far right league by Georges Valois. It was preceded by its newspaper, ''Le Nouveau Siècle'', which had been founded as ...

, a tiny minority compared with the Croix-de-Feu, whose membership peaked at over a million. The Israeli historian

Zeev Sternhell Zeev Sternhell ( he, זאב שטרנהל; 10 April 1935 – 21 June 2020) was a Polish-born Israeli historian, political scientist, commentator on the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, and writer. He was one of the world's leading theorists of the ...

, on the other hand, has argued for the existence of a native French fascism and for groups like the

Cercle Proudhon ''Cercle Proudhon'' (; French for Proudhon Circle) was a national syndicalist political group in France. The group was inspired by Georges Sorel, Charles Maurras and a selective reading of anarchist theorist Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. History Founded ...

of the mid-to-late 1910s being among the more important ideological breeding grounds of the movement. He, however, does not include the Croix de Feu in that category:

The 'centrist' right always had its own shock troops that served its own purposes, and took good care that they did not become confused with the fascists.

Sternhell, interested in the Fascism as a "anti-material revision of Marxism" or an anti-capitalist, cultish,

corporatist Corporatism is a Collectivism and individualism, collectivist political ideology which advocates the organization of society by Corporate group (sociology), corporate groups, such as agricultural, labour, military, business, scientific, or guil ...

extreme nationalism, points out that groups like the

, the revived Ligue des Patriotes and the Croix de Feu were derided by French fascists at the time. Fascist leaders in France saw themselves as destroyers of the old order, above politics, and rejecting the corruption of capitalism. To them the Leagues were a bulwark of this corrupt regime. Robert Brasillach called them "old cuckolds of the right, these eternal deceived husbands of politics.." and claimed that "the enemies of national restoration are not only on the left but first and foremost on the right.l".cited by Sternhell, 1983/86, p. 225 Neither Right nor Left: Fascist Ideology in France, Princeton University Press, California (1986 translation of 1983 French work) The American journalist

John Gunther John Gunther (August 30, 1901 – May 29, 1970) was an American journalist and writer. His success came primarily by a series of popular sociopolitical works, known as the "Inside" books (1936–1972), including the best-selling ''Insid ...

in 1940 described La Rocque as a "French Fascist No. 1, the chief potential French March-on-Romer" but added that he was "a rather pallid Fascist", did not attempt to seize power during the 6 February riots and peacefully complied with the government's ban of the Croix de Feu. Other scholars, such as Robert Soucy and William D. Irvine, argue that the La Rocque and the Croix de Feu were in fact fascist and a particularly "French" fascism. La Rocque, however, if tempted by a paramilitary aesthetic and initially advocating collaboration with the Germans during the Second World War, finally came out against the more radical supporters of

Nazi Germany Nazi Germany (lit. "National Socialist State"), ' (lit. "Nazi State") for short; also ' (lit. "National Socialist Germany") (officially known as the German Reich from 1933 until 1943, and the Greater German Reich from 1943 to 1945) was ...

Beginnings (1927–1930)

Under La Rocque (1930–1936)

Parti Social Français (1936–1940)

Second World War

Political heritage

Continuing debate

See also

References

Further reading