Corporate Crime
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In
criminology Criminology (from Latin , "accusation", and Ancient Greek , ''-logia'', from λόγος ''logos'' meaning: "word, reason") is the study of crime and deviant behaviour. Criminology is an interdisciplinary field in both the behavioural and so ...
, corporate crime refers to crimes committed either by a
corporation A corporation is an organization—usually a group of people or a company—authorized by the state to act as a single entity (a legal entity recognized by private and public law "born out of statute"; a legal person in legal context) and r ...
(i.e., a
business entity In law, a legal person is any person or 'thing' (less ambiguously, any legal entity) that can do the things a human person is usually able to do in law – such as enter into contracts, sue and be sued, own property, and so on. The reason for ...
having a separate legal personality from the
natural person In jurisprudence, a natural person (also physical person in some Commonwealth countries, or natural entity) is a person (in legal meaning, i.e., one who has its own legal personality) that is an individual human being, distinguished from the bro ...
s that manage its activities), or by individuals acting on behalf of a corporation or other business entity (see
vicarious liability Vicarious liability is a form of a strict, secondary liability that arises under the common law doctrine of agency, ''respondeat superior'', the responsibility of the superior for the acts of their subordinate or, in a broader sense, the res ...
and
corporate liability Corporate liability, also referred to as liability of legal persons, determines the extent to which a company as a legal person can be held liable for the acts and omissions of the natural persons it employs and, in some legal systems, for those o ...
). For the worst corporate crimes, corporations may face
judicial dissolution Judicial dissolution, sometimes called the corporate death penalty, is a legal procedure in which a corporation is forced to dissolve or cease to exist. Dissolution is the revocation of a corporation's charter for significant harm to society. In ...
, sometimes called the "corporate death penalty", which is a legal procedure in which a corporation is forced to dissolve or cease to exist. Some negative behaviours by corporations may not actually be criminal; laws vary between jurisdictions. For example, some jurisdictions allow
insider trading Insider trading is the trading of a public company's stock or other securities (such as bonds or stock options) based on material, nonpublic information about the company. In various countries, some kinds of trading based on insider information ...
. Corporate crime overlaps with: *
white-collar crime The term "white-collar crime" refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crime committed by individuals, businesses and government professionals. It was first defined by the sociologist Edwin Sutherland in 1939 as "a ...
, because the majority of individuals who may act as or represent the interests of the corporation are white-collar
profession A profession is a field of work that has been successfully ''professionalized''. It can be defined as a disciplined group of individuals, '' professionals'', who adhere to ethical standards and who hold themselves out as, and are accepted by ...
als; *
organized crime Organized crime (or organised crime) is a category of transnational, national, or local groupings of highly centralized enterprises run by criminals to engage in illegal activity, most commonly for profit. While organized crime is generally th ...
, because criminals may set up corporations either for the purposes of crime or as vehicles for laundering the proceeds of crime. The world's gross criminal product has been estimated at 20 percent of world trade. (de Brie 2000); and * state-corporate crime because, in many contexts, the opportunity to commit crime emerges from the relationship between the corporation and the
state State may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Literature * ''State Magazine'', a monthly magazine published by the U.S. Department of State * ''The State'' (newspaper), a daily newspaper in Columbia, South Carolina, United States * ''Our S ...
.


Definitional issues


Legal person

An 1886 decision of the
United States Supreme Court The Supreme Court of the United States (SCOTUS) is the highest court in the federal judiciary of the United States. It has ultimate appellate jurisdiction over all U.S. federal court cases, and over state court cases that involve a point o ...
, in ''
Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad ''Santa Clara County v. Southern Pacific Railroad Company'', 118 U.S. 394 (1886), is a corporate law case of the United States Supreme Court concerning taxation of railroad properties. The case is most notable for a headnote stating that the Equa ...
'' , has been cited by various courts in the US as precedent to maintain that a corporation can be defined legally as a "person", as described in the
Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution The Fourteenth Amendment (Amendment XIV) to the United States Constitution was adopted on July 9, 1868, as one of the Reconstruction Amendments. Often considered as one of the most consequential amendments, it addresses citizenship rights and e ...
. The Fourteenth Amendment stipulates that, In
English law English law is the common law legal system of England and Wales, comprising mainly criminal law and civil law, each branch having its own courts and procedures. Principal elements of English law Although the common law has, historically, be ...
, this was matched by the decision in ''
Salomon v A Salomon & Co Ltd is a landmark UK company law case. The effect of the House of Lords' unanimous ruling was to uphold firmly the doctrine of corporate personality, as set out in the Companies Act 1862, so that creditors of an insolvent company could not sue the ...
''
897 __NOTOC__ Year 897 ( DCCCXCVII) was a common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. Events By place Europe * Spring – King Lambert II travels to Rome with his mother, Queen Agelt ...
AC 22. In
Australian law The legal system of Australia has multiple forms. It includes a written constitution, unwritten constitutional conventions, statutes, regulations, and the judicially determined common law system. Its legal institutions and traditions are substa ...
, under the ''Corporations Act 2001 (Cth)'', a corporation is legally a "person".


Criminal capacity

The concepts of crime and punishment, as they apply to individuals, cannot be easily transferred to the corporate domain. International treaties governing corporate malfeasance thus tend to permit but not require corporate criminal liability. Recently a number of countries and the
European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...
have been working to establish corporate criminal liability for certain offences. United States law currently recognizes corporate criminal capacity, although it is extremely rare for corporations to be litigated in criminal proceedings. French law currently recognizes corporate criminal capacity. German law does not recognize corporate criminal capacity: German corporations are however subject to fining for administrative violations ()


Enforcement policy

Corporate crime has become politically sensitive in some countries. In the
United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain, is a country in Europe, off the north-western coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and North ...
, for example, following wider publicity of fatal accidents on the rail network and at sea, the term is commonly used in reference to
corporate manslaughter Corporate manslaughter is a crime in several jurisdictions, including England and Wales and Hong Kong. It enables a corporation to be punished and censured for culpable conduct that leads to a person's death. This extends beyond any compensation t ...
and to involve a more general discussion about the technological hazards posed by business enterprises (see Wells: 2001). In the United States, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 was passed to reform business practices, including enhanced corporate responsibility, financial disclosures, and combat fraud, following the highly publicized and extremely harmful (to victims) scandals of
Enron Enron Corporation was an American energy, commodities, and services company based in Houston, Texas. It was founded by Kenneth Lay in 1985 as a merger between Lay's Houston Natural Gas and InterNorth, both relatively small regional companies. ...
,
WorldCom MCI, Inc. (subsequently Worldcom and MCI WorldCom) was a telecommunications company. For a time, it was the second largest long-distance telephone company in the United States, after AT&T. Worldcom grew largely by acquiring other telecommunic ...
,
Freddie Mac The Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (FHLMC), commonly known as Freddie Mac, is a publicly traded, government-sponsored enterprise (GSE), headquartered in Tysons Corner, Virginia.Lehman Brothers Lehman Brothers Holdings Inc. ( ) was an American global financial services firm founded in 1847. Before Bankruptcy of Lehman Brothers, filing for bankruptcy in 2008, Lehman was the fourth-largest investment bank in the United States (behind Gol ...
, and
Bernie Madoff Bernard Lawrence Madoff ( ; April 29, 1938April 14, 2021) was an American fraudster and financier who was the admitted mastermind of the largest Ponzi scheme in history, worth about $64.8 billion. He was at one time chairman of the NASDA ...
. Company chief executive officer (CEO) and company chief financial officer (CFO) are required to personally certify financial reports to be accurate and compliant with applicable laws, with criminal penalties for willful misconduct including monetary fines up to $5,000,000 and prison sentence up to 20 years. The Law Reform Commission of New South Wales offers an explanation of such criminal activities: Similarly, Russell Mokhiber and Robert Weissman (1999) assert:


Discussion


Criminalization

Behavior can be regulated by the civil law (including
administrative law Administrative law is the division of law that governs the activities of government agency, executive branch agencies of Forms of government, government. Administrative law concerns executive branch rule making (executive branch rules are gener ...
) or the
criminal law Criminal law is the body of law that relates to crime. It prescribes conduct perceived as threatening, harmful, or otherwise endangering to the property, health, safety, and moral welfare of people inclusive of one's self. Most criminal law i ...
. In deciding to criminalize particular behavior, the
legislature A legislature is an assembly with the authority to make law Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90. with its p ...
is making the political judgment that this behavior is sufficiently
culpable In criminal law, culpability, or being culpable, is a measure of the degree to which an agent, such as a person, can be held morally or legally responsible for action and inaction. It has been noted that the word, culpability, "ordinarily ha ...
to deserve the stigma of being labelled as a crime. In law, corporations can commit the same offences as natural persons. Simpson (2002) avers that this process should be straightforward because a state should simply engage in
victimology Victimology is the study of victimization, including the psychological effects on victims, the relationship between victims and offenders, the interactions between victims and the criminal justice system—that is, the police and courts, and c ...
to identify which behavior causes the most loss and damage to its
citizen Citizenship is a "relationship between an individual and a state to which the individual owes allegiance and in turn is entitled to its protection". Each state determines the conditions under which it will recognize persons as its citizens, and ...
s, and then represent the majority view that
justice Justice, in its broadest sense, is the principle that people receive that which they deserve, with the interpretation of what then constitutes "deserving" being impacted upon by numerous fields, with many differing viewpoints and perspective ...
requires the intervention of the criminal law. But states depend on the business sector to deliver a functioning economy, so the politics of regulating the individuals and corporations which supply that stability become more complex. For the views of
Marxist criminology Marxist criminology is one of the schools of criminology. It parallels the work of the structural functionalism school which focuses on what produces stability and continuity in society but, unlike the functionalists, it adopts a predefined po ...
, see Snider (1993) and Snider & Pearce (1995), for
Left realism Left realism emerged in criminology from critical criminology as a reaction against what was perceived to be the left's failure to take a practical interest in everyday crime, allowing right realism to monopolize the political agenda on law and ...
, see Pearce & Tombs (1992) and Schulte-Bockholt (2001), and for
Right Realism Right realism, in criminology, also known as New Right Realism, Neo-Classicism, Neo-Positivism, or Neo-Conservatism, is the ideological polar opposite of left realism. It considers the phenomenon of crime from the perspective of political cons ...
, see Reed & Yeager (1996). More specifically, the historical tradition of
sovereign ''Sovereign'' is a title which can be applied to the highest leader in various categories. The word is borrowed from Old French , which is ultimately derived from the Latin , meaning 'above'. The roles of a sovereign vary from monarch, ruler or ...
state control of
prison A prison, also known as a jail, gaol (dated, standard English, Australian, and historically in Canada), penitentiary (American English and Canadian English), detention center (or detention centre outside the US), correction center, correc ...
s is ending through the process of
privatisation Privatization (also privatisation in British English) can mean several different things, most commonly referring to moving something from the public sector into the private sector. It is also sometimes used as a synonym for deregulation when ...
. Corporate profitability in these areas therefore depends on building more prison facilities, managing their operations, and selling inmate labor. In turn, this requires a steady stream of prisoners able to work. (Kicenski: 2002)
Bribery Bribery is the Offer and acceptance, offering, Gift, giving, Offer and acceptance, receiving, or Solicitation, soliciting of any item of value to influence the actions of an official, or other person, in charge of a public or legal duty. With reg ...
and
corruption Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense which is undertaken by a person or an organization which is entrusted in a position of authority, in order to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's personal gain. Corruption m ...
are problems in the developed world, and the corruption of public officials is thought to be a serious problem in developing countries, and an obstacle to development.
Edwin Sutherland Edwin Hardin Sutherland (August 13, 1883 – October 11, 1950) was an American sociologist. He is considered one of the most influential criminologists of the 20th century. He was a sociologist of the symbolic interactionist school of thought ...
's definition of white collar crime also is related to notions of corporate crime. In his landmark definition of white collar crime he offered these categories of crime: *Misrepresentation in financial statements of corporations * Manipulation in the stock market *
Commercial bribery Commercial bribery is a form of bribery which involves corrupt dealing with the agents or employees of potential buyers to secure an advantage over business competitors. It is a form of corruption which does not necessarily involve government pers ...
*Bribery of public officials directly or indirectly * Misrepresentation in advertisement and salesmanship *Embezzlement and misappropriation of funds * Misapplication of funds in receiverships and bankruptcies (O'Grady: 2011).


Corruption and the private sector review

One paper discusses some of the issues that arise in the relationship between private sector and corruption. The findings can be summarized as follows: * They present evidence that corruption induces informality by acting as a barrier to entry into the formal sector. Firms that are forced to go underground operate at a smaller scale and are less productive. * Corruption also affects the growth of firms in the private sector. This result seems to be independent of the size of the firm. A channel through which corruption may affect the growth prospects of firms is through its negative impact on product innovation. * SMEs pay higher bribes as percentage of revenue compared with large companies and bribery seems to be the main form of corruption affecting SMEs. * Bribery is not the only form of corruption affecting large firms. Embezzlement by a company's own employees, corporate fraud, and insider trading can be very damaging to enterprises too. * There is evidence that the private sector has as much responsibility in generating corruption as the public sector. Particular situations such as state capture can be very damaging for the economy. * Corruption is a symptom of poor governance. Governance can only be improved via coordinated efforts among governments, businesses, civil society.


Organi-cultural deviance

Organi-cultural deviance is a recent philosophical model used in academia and corporate criminology that views corporate crime as a body of social, behavioral, and environmental processes leading to deviant acts. This view of corporate crime differs from that of Edwin Sutherland (1949), who referred to corporate crime as ''
white-collar crime The term "white-collar crime" refers to financially motivated, nonviolent or non-directly violent crime committed by individuals, businesses and government professionals. It was first defined by the sociologist Edwin Sutherland in 1939 as "a ...
'', in that Sutherland viewed corporate crime as something done by an individual as an isolated end unto itself. With the Organi-cultural deviance view, corporate crime can be engaged in by individuals, groups, organizations, and groups of organizations, all within an organizational context. This view also takes into account micro and macro social, environmental, and personality factors, using a holistic systems approach to understanding the causation of corporate crime.Husted, C. (2008). ''Systematic Differentiation Between Dark and Light Leaders: Is a Corporate Criminal Profile Possible''. Capella University The term derives its meaning from the words ''organization'' (a structured unit) and ''culture'' (the set of shared attitudes, values, goals, and practices). This reflects the view that corporate cultures may encourage or accept deviant behaviors that differ from what is normal or accepted in the broader society. Organi-cultural deviance explains the deviant behaviors (defined by societal norms) engaged in by individuals or groups of individuals. Because corporate crime has often been seen as an understudy of common crime and criminology, it is only recently that the study of corporate crime been included in coursework and degree programs directly related to criminal justice, business management, and organizational psychology. This is partly due to a lack of an official definition for crimes committed in the context of organizations and corporations. The social philosophical study of common crime gained recognition through
Cesare Beccaria Cesare Bonesana di Beccaria, Marquis of Gualdrasco and Villareggio (; 15 March 173828 November 1794) was an Italian criminologist, jurist, philosopher, economist and politician, who is widely considered one of the greatest thinkers of the Age ...
during the 18th century, when Beccaria was heralded as the Father of the Classical School of Criminology. However, corporate crime was not officially recognized as an independent area of study until
Edwin Sutherland Edwin Hardin Sutherland (August 13, 1883 – October 11, 1950) was an American sociologist. He is considered one of the most influential criminologists of the 20th century. He was a sociologist of the symbolic interactionist school of thought ...
provided a definition of ''white collar crime'' in 1949. Sutherland in 1949, argued to the American Sociological Society the need to expand the boundaries of the study of crime to include the criminal act of respectable individuals in the course of their occupation.Schlegel, K., & Weisburd, D. (1992). ''White-collar crime reconsidered''. Boston: Northeastern University Press In 2008, Christie Husted found corporate crime to be a complex dynamic of system-level processes, personality traits, macro-environmental, and social influences, requiring a holistic approach to studying corporate crime. Husted, in her 2008 doctoral thesis, ''Systematic Differentiation Between Dark and Light Leaders: Is a Corporate Criminal Profile Possible?'', coined the term ''organi-cultural deviance'' to explain these social, situational and environmental factors giving rise to corporate crime.


Application

Renée Gendron and Christie Husted, through their research conducted in 2008-2012, expanded the concept of organi-cultural deviance, in papers presented the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences conference Toronto, Canada, the American Association of Behavioral and Social Sciences Annual Conference, Las Vegas, Nevada, the General Meeting of the Administrative Sciences Association of Canada, in Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, and The Humanities conference in Montréal, Canada. The term organi-cultural deviance incorporated the terms group think, and yes-men, to explain decision-related cognitive impairments inherent of corporations engaging in corporate crime. The researchers have found several interconnected dynamics that increase the likelihood of white-collar crime. The researchers have found specific group dynamics involved in white collar crime are similar to the group dynamics present in gangs, organized crime organizations as well as cults. Moreover, the researchers have found that there are systems-level forces influencing the behaviors and cognitions of individuals.Gendron, R. and Husted, C. (2011b). ''Using Gang and Cult Typologies to Understand Corporate Crimes'', Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences' Annual General meeting, Toronto, Canada. The subject of organi-cultural deviance was first taught in business management, leadership classes, and in a class titled ''Corporate Misconduct'' in America, at Casper College during 2008-2009. Organi-cultural deviance was introduced to students as a social philosophical term used to help describe, explain, and understand the complex social, behavioral, and environmental forces, that lead organizations to engage in corporate crime.


Social dynamics

The term organi-cultural deviance was later expanded and published in a 2011 paper titled ''Socialization of Individuals into Deviant Corporate Culture''.Gendron, R. and Husted, C. (2011a). ''Socialization of Individuals into Deviant Corporate Culture'', American Association of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Las Vegas, Nevada. Perspectives 14 . Organi-cultural deviance was used to describe how processes of individual and group socialization, within deviant corporate cultures, serve to invert
Abraham Maslow Abraham Harold Maslow (; April 1, 1908 – June 8, 1970) was an American psychologist who was best known for creating Maslow's hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological health predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority, cul ...
's (1954) ''Hierarchy of Needs'' into a theoretical "Hierarchical Funnel of Individual Needs". Organi-cultural deviance was further explored by Gendron and Husted, using a micro-environmental approach, identifying social dynamics within deviant organizations believed to lure and capture individuals. However, through the social processes inherent of organi-cultural deviance, social pressures and influences force the individual to vacate aspirations to reach self-actualization and become complacent on satisfying lower needs, such as belongingness. In organi-cultural deviance, social dynamics and micro-environmental forces are believed, by Gendron and Husted, to result in the individual's dependence upon the organization for their basic needs. Organizations engaging in organi-cultural deviance use manipulation and a façade of honesty, with promises of meeting the individual's needs of self-actualization. The social forces such as the use of physical and psychological violence to maintain compliance with organizational goals within deviant organizations secure the individual's dependence upon the organization for satisfaction of their basic needs. As the process of organi-cultural deviance escalates, the complacency to meet mid-level needs becomes a dependency on the organization to satisfy the lower needs of the pyramid, the individual's basic needs. In the paper ''Using Gang and Cult Typologies to Understand Corporate Crimes, Gendron and Husted'' found organizations engaging in organi-cultural deviance used coercive power, monetary, physical and/or psychological threats, to maintain their gravitational hold on the individual. In the 2011 paper, ''Using Gang and Cult Typologies to Understand Corporate Crimes'', organi-cultural deviance was used to compare the cultures of: mafias, cults, gangs and deviant corporations, each of which was assumed to be a type of deviant organization. In these types of organizations, organi-cultural deviance was found to be present. In engaging in organi-cultural deviance, these organizations leverage four resources: information, violence, reputation and publicity. These types of organizations engaging in organi-cultural deviance were found to contain toxic leadership. Deviant organizations, engaging in organi-cultural deviance, were found to leverage their reputation through publicity to attract members. The combination of adverse psychological forces, combined with the real need for its employees to survive (earn a living, avoid bullying) act as a type of organizational gravitational pull. The concept of organi-cultural deviance includes both micro (personal, psychological or otherwise internal forces exercising influence over an individual's behavior) and macro influences (group dynamics, organizational culture, inter-organizational forces as well as system pressures and constraints, such as a legal system or overall economic environment).


Environmental influences

In a 2012 paper titled ''Organi-cultural Deviance: Economic Cycles Predicting Corporate Misconduct?'', Gendron and Husted found economic cycles result in strain, seen as a precipitating factor in organi-cultural deviance.Gendron, R. and Husted, C. (2012). ''Economic Cycles Predicting Corporate Misconduct?'' American Association of Behavioral and Social Sciences, Las Vegas, Nevada. February 16–17. Organi-cultural deviance is based on the premise social pressure and economic forces exert strain on organizations to engage in corporate crime. Strain creates motivating tension in organi-cultural deviance. Robert Merton championed strain theorists in the field of criminology, believing there to be "a universal set of goals toward which all Americans, regardless of background and position, strive, chief among these is monetary success".Cernkovich, Giordano & Rudolph (2000) ''Robert Merton'', p. 132 Economic cycles result in observable patterns which are indicative of organi-cultural deviance. Organi-cultural deviance is likely to occur at different points in an economic cycle and system. The specific location of an economy in the economic cycle tends to generate specific kinds of leaders. Entrepreneurial leaders tend to be most visible at the bottom of an economic cycle, during a depression or recession. Entrepreneurial leaders are able to motivate their employees to innovate and develop new products. As the economy strengthens, there is a marked increased of bureaucratic leaders who standardise and operationalise the successes of entrepreneurial leaders. As the economy reaches the apex of the economic cycle, pseudo-transformational leaders are likely to emerge, promising the same, if not higher, rates of return in a booming or peaking economy. Often, these pseudo-transformational leaders engage in deviant practices to maintain the illusion of rising rates of return.


See also


References

* Braithwaite, John. (1984). ''Corporate Crime in the Pharmaceutical Industry''. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Books. * Castells, Manuel. (1996). '' The Rise of the Network Society ( The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. Volume I.)'' Oxford: Blackwell. * Clinard, Marshall B. & Yeager, Peter Cleary. (2005). ''Corporate Crime''. Somerset, NJ: Transaction Publishers. * de Brie, Christian (2000) ‘Thick as thieves’ Le Monde Diplomatique (Apri

* Ermann, M. David & Lundman, Richard J. (eds.) (2002). ''Corporate and Governmental Deviance: Problems of Organizational Behavior in Contemporary Society''. (6th edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Friedrichs, David O. (2010). ''Trusted Criminals: White-collar Crime in Contemporary Society''. * Friedrichs, David O. (2002).
Occupational crime, occupational deviance, and workplace crime: Sorting out the difference
. ''Criminal Justice'', 2, pp243–256. * Garland, David (1996), "The Limits of the Sovereign State: Strategies of Crime Control in Contemporary Society", ''British Journal of Criminology'' Vol 36 pp445–471. * Gobert, J & Punch, M. (2003). ''Rethinking Corporate Crime'', London: Butterworths. * Kicenski, Karyl K. (2002). ''The Corporate Prison: The Production of Crime & the Sale of Discipline''

* Law Reform Commission for New South Wales. ''Issues Paper 20 (2001) - Sentencing: Corporate Offenders''

* Lea, John. (2001). ''Crime as Governance: Reorienting Criminology

* Russell Mokhiber, Mokhiber, Russell & Weissmann, Robert. (1999). ''Corporate Predators : The Hunt for Mega-Profits and the Attack on Democracy''. Common Courage Press. * O'Grady, William. ''Crime in Canadian Context''. Toronto: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 175. * Pearce, Frank & Tombs, Steven. (1992). "Realism and Corporate Crime", in ''Issues in Realist Criminology''. (R. Matthews & J. Young eds.). London: Sage. * Pearce, Frank & Tombs, Steven. (1993). "US Capital versus the Third World: Union Carbide and Bhopal" in ''Global Crime Connections: Dynamics and Control''. (Frank Pearce & Michael Woodiwiss eds.). * Peèar, Janez (1996). "Corporate Wrongdoing Policing" College of Police and Security Studies, Slovenia

* Reed, Gary E. & Yeager, Peter Cleary. (1996). "Organizational offending and neoclassical criminology: Challenging the reach of a general theory of crime". ''Criminology'', 34, pp357–382. * Schulte-Bockholt, A. (2001). "A Neo-Marxist Explanation of Organized Crime". ''Critical Criminology'', 10 * Simpson, Sally S. (2002).
Corporate Crime, Law, and Social Control
'. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Snider, Laureen. (1993). ''Bad Business: Corporate Crime in Canada'', Toronto: Nelson. * Snider, Laureen & Pearce, Frank (eds.). (1995).
Corporate Crime: Contemporary Debates
', Toronto: University of Toronto Press. * Vaughan, Diane. (1998).
Rational choice, situated action, and the social control of organizations
. ''Law & Society Review'', 32, pp23–61. * Wells, Celia. (2001). ''Corporations and Criminal Responsibility'' (Second Edition). Oxford: Oxford University Press.


Further reading

* Sutherland, E. (1934). ''Principles of criminology''. Chicago, IL: Yale University Press.


External links


WhiteHouse.gov
- 'Corporate Responsibility: The President's Leadership in Combating Corporate Fraud', The
White House The White House is the official residence and workplace of the president of the United States. It is located at 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue NW in Washington, D.C., and has been the residence of every U.S. president since John Adams in 1800. ...

Farum: Rafter
{{DEFAULTSORT:Corporate Crime Crime by type Criminology Anti-corporate activism Problems in business economics