Congress of Vienna

The Congress of Vienna (, ) of 1814–1815 was an international diplomatic conference to reconstitute the European political order after the downfall of the French Emperor

Napoleon I

. It was a meeting of ambassadors of European states chaired by Austrian statesman Klemens von Metternich, and held in

Vienna

from November 1814 to June 1815.

The objective of the Congress was to provide a long-term peace plan for Europe by settling critical issues arising from the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. The goal was not simply to restore old boundaries but to resize the main powers so they could balance each other and remain at peace. More fundamentally, the conservative leaders of the Congress sought to restrain or eliminate the republicanism and

revolution

which had upended the

constitutional order

of the European old regime, and which continued to threaten it. In the settlement, France lost all its recent conquests, while Prussia, Austria and Russia made major territorial gains. Prussia added smaller German states in the west, Swedish Pomerania, 60% of the Kingdom of Saxony, and the western part of the former Duchy of Warsaw; Austria gained

Venice

and much of northern Italy. Russia gained the central and eastern part of the Duchy of Warsaw. It ratified the new Kingdom of the Netherlands which had been created just months before from the formerly Austrian territory that in 1830 became

Belgium

.

The immediate background was Napoleonic France's defeat and surrender in May 1814, which brought an end to 23 years of nearly continuous war. Negotiations continued despite the outbreak of fighting triggered by Napoleon's dramatic return from exile and resumption of power in France during the Hundred Days of March to July 1815. The Congress's "final act" was signed nine days before his final defeat at

Waterloo

on 18 June 1815.

Historians have criticized the Congress for causing the subsequent suppression of the emerging national and liberal movements, and it has been seen as a reactionary movement for the benefit of traditional monarchs.

In a technical sense, the "Congress of Vienna" was not properly a congress: it never met in plenary session. Instead, most of the discussions occurred in informal, face-to-face sessions among the Great Powers of Austria, Britain, France, Russia, and sometimes Prussia, with limited or no participation by other delegates. On the other hand, the Congress was the first occasion in history where, on a continental scale, national representatives came together to formulate treaties instead of relying mostly on messages among the several capitals. The Congress of Vienna settlement formed the framework for European international politics until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.

Preliminaries

The Treaty of Chaumont in 1814 had reaffirmed decisions that had been made already and that would be ratified by the more important Congress of Vienna of 1814–15. They included the establishment of a confederated Germany, the division of Italy into independent states, the restoration of the Bourbon kings of Spain, and the enlargement of the Netherlands to include what in 1830 became modern Belgium. The Treaty of Chaumont became the cornerstone of the European Alliance that formed the balance of power for decades. Other partial settlements had already occurred at the Treaty of Paris between France and the Sixth Coalition, and the Treaty of Kiel that covered issues raised regarding

Scandinavia

. The Treaty of Paris had determined that a "general congress" should be held in

Vienna

and that invitations would be issued to "all the Powers engaged on either side in the present war". The opening was scheduled for July 1814.

Participants

The Congress functioned through formal meetings such as working groups and official diplomatic functions; however, a large portion of the Congress was conducted informally at salons, banquets, and balls.

Four Great Powers and Bourbon France

The Four Great Powers had previously formed the core of the Sixth Coalition. On the verge of Napoleon's defeat they had outlined their common position in the Treaty of Chaumont (March 1814), and negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) with the Bourbons during their restoration:
* Austria was represented by

Prince Metternich

, the Foreign Minister, and by his deputy, Baron Johann von Wessenberg. As the Congress's sessions were in Vienna, Emperor

Francis

was kept closely informed.
* The United Kingdom was represented first by its Foreign Secretary, Viscount Castlereagh; then by the

Duke of Wellington

, after Castlereagh's return to England in February 1815. In the last weeks it was headed by the Earl of Clancarty, after Wellington left to face Napoleon during the Hundred Days.
* Tsar

Alexander I

controlled the Russian delegation which was formally led by the foreign minister, Count

Karl Robert Nesselrode

. The tsar had two main goals, to gain control of Poland and to promote the peaceful coexistence of European nations. He succeeded in forming the

Holy Alliance

(1815), based on monarchism and anti-secularism, and formed to combat any threat of revolution or republicanism.
* Prussia was represented by Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, the Chancellor, and the diplomat and scholar

Wilhelm von Humboldt

. King

Frederick William III of Prussia

was also in Vienna, playing his role behind the scenes.
*

France

, the "fifth" power, was represented by its foreign minister, Talleyrand, as well as the Minister Plenipotentiary the Duke of Dalberg. Talleyrand had already negotiated the Treaty of Paris (1814) for

Louis XVIII of France

; the king, however, distrusted him and was also secretly negotiating with Metternich, by mail.

Other signatories of the Treaty of Paris, 1814

These parties had not been part of the Chaumont agreement, but had joined the Treaty of Paris (1814):
* Spain – Pedro Gómez de Labrador, 1st Marquess of Labrador
* Portugal – Plenipotentiaries:

Pedro de Sousa Holstein, Count of Palmela

; António de Saldanha da Gama, Count of Porto Santo; Joaquim Lobo da Silveira.
*

Sweden

– Count Carl Löwenhielm

Others

*

Denmark

– Count Niels Rosenkrantz, foreign minister. King

Frederick VI

was also present in Vienna.
* The Netherlands – Earl of Clancarty, the British Ambassador at the Dutch court, and Baron

Hans von Gagern

* Switzerland – Every canton had its own delegation.

Charles Pictet de Rochemont

from

Geneva

played a prominent role.
* Kingdom of Sardinia – Marquis .
* The Papal States – Cardinal

Ercole Consalvi

* The Order of St. John of Malta – Fra Antonio Miari, Fra Daniello Berlinghieri and Fra Augusto Viè de Cesarini
* Republic of Genoa – Marquise Agostino Pareto, Senator of the Republic.
* Grand Duchy of Tuscany – .
*

Kingdom of Sicily

– Alvaro Ruffo della Scaletta, Luigi de' Medici di Ottajano, Antonio Maresca di Serracapriola and Fabrizio Ruffo di Castelcicala
* On German issues,
** Bavaria – Maximilian Graf von Montgelas
** Württemberg –
** Hanover, then in a personal union with the British crown –

Ernst zu Münster

. (King

George III

had refused to recognize the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 and maintained a separate diplomatic staff as Elector of Hanover to conduct the affairs of the family estate, the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg, until the results of the Congress were concluded establishing the Kingdom of Hanover).
** Mecklenburg-Schwerin –

Virtually every state in Europe had a delegation in Vienna – more than 200 states and princely houses were represented at the Congress. In addition, there were representatives of cities, corporations, religious organizations (for instance, abbeys) and special interest groups – e.g., a delegation representing German publishers, demanding a copyright law and freedom of the press. The Congress was noted for its lavish entertainment: according to a famous joke it did not move, but danced.

Talleyrand's role

Initially, the representatives of the four victorious powers hoped to exclude the French from serious participation in the negotiations, but Talleyrand skillfully managed to insert himself into "her inner councils" in the first weeks of negotiations. He allied himself to a Committee of Eight lesser powers (including Spain, Sweden, and Portugal) to control the negotiations. Once Talleyrand was able to use this committee to make himself a part of the inner negotiations, he then left it, once again abandoning his allies.

The major Allies' indecision on how to conduct their affairs without provoking a united protest from the lesser powers led to the calling of a preliminary conference on the protocol, to which Talleyrand and the Marquess of Labrador, Spain's representative, were invited on 30 September 1814.

Congress Secretary Friedrich von Gentz reported, "The intervention of Talleyrand and Labrador has hopelessly upset all our plans. Talleyrand protested against the procedure we have adopted and soundly

e

ated us for two hours. It was a scene I shall never forget." The embarrassed representatives of the Allies replied that the document concerning the protocol they had arranged actually meant nothing. "If it means so little, why did you sign it?" snapped Labrador.

Talleyrand's policy, directed as much by national as personal ambitions, demanded the close but by no means amicable relationship he had with Labrador, whom Talleyrand regarded with disdain. Labrador later remarked of Talleyrand: "that cripple, unfortunately, is going to Vienna." Talleyrand skirted additional articles suggested by Labrador: he had no intention of handing over the 12,000 ''afrancesados'' – Spanish fugitives, sympathetic to France, who had sworn fealty to

Joseph Bonaparte

, nor the bulk of the documents, paintings, pieces of fine art, and books that had been looted from the archives, palaces, churches and cathedrals of Spain.

Polish-Saxon crisis

The most dangerous topic at the Congress was the Polish-Saxon Crisis. Russia wanted most of Poland, and Prussia wanted all of Saxony, whose king had allied with Napoleon. The tsar would become king of Poland. Austria was fearful this would make Russia much too powerful, a view which was supported by Britain. The result was a deadlock, for which Talleyrand proposed a solution: admit France to the inner circle, and France would support Austria and Britain. The three nations signed a secret treaty on 3 January 1815, agreeing to go to war against Russia and Prussia, if necessary, to prevent the Russo-Prussian plan from coming to fruition.Nicolson, Sir Harold (2001)
''The Congress of Vienna: A Study in Allied Unity: 1812–1822''
Grove Press; Rep. Ed. pp. 140–164.

When the Tsar heard of the secret treaty he agreed to a compromise that satisfied all parties on 24 October 1815. Russia received most of the Napoleonic Duchy of Warsaw as a "Kingdom of Poland" – called Congress Poland, with the tsar as a king ruling it independently of Russia. Russia, however, did not receive the majority of Greater Poland and Kuyavia nor the Chełmno Land, which were given to Prussia and mostly included within the newly formed Grand Duchy of Posen (

Poznań

), nor

Kraków

, which officially became a free city, but in fact was a shared protectorate of Austria, Prussia and Russia. Furthermore, the tsar was unable to unite the new domain with the parts of Poland that had been incorporated into Russia in the 1790s. Prussia received 60 percent of Saxony-later known as the Province of Saxony, with the remainder returned to King Frederick Augustus I as his Kingdom of Saxony.

Final Act

The Final Act, embodying all the separate treaties, was signed on 9 June 1815 (nine days before the

Battle of Waterloo

). Its provisions included:
* Russia received most of the Duchy of Warsaw (Poland) and retained

Finland

(which it had annexed from Sweden in 1809 and would hold until 1917, as the Grand Duchy of Finland).
* Prussia received three-fifths of Saxony, western parts of the Duchy of Warsaw (most of which became part of the newly formed Grand Duchy of Posen),

Gdańsk

(Danzig), the Grand Duchy of the Lower Rhine (merger of the former French departments of Rhin-et-Moselle, Sarre, and Roer (Province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg (merger itself of the former Prussian Guelders, Principality of Moers, and the Grand Duchy of Berg))
* A

German Confederation

of 39 states, under the presidency of the Austrian Emperor, formed from the previous 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire. Only portions of the territories of each of Austria and Prussia were included in the Confederation (roughly the same portions that had been within the Holy Roman Empire).
* The Netherlands and the Southern Netherlands (approximately modern-day Belgium) became a united monarchy, the

United Kingdom of the Netherlands

, with the House of Orange-Nassau providing the king (the Eight Articles of London).
* To compensate for Orange-Nassau's loss of the Nassau lands to Prussia, the

United Kingdom of the Netherlands

and the

Grand Duchy of Luxembourg

were to form a

personal union

under the House of Orange-Nassau, with Luxembourg (but not the Netherlands) inside the

German Confederation

.
* Swedish Pomerania, given to Denmark in January 1814 in return for The Kingdom of

Norway

, became part of Prussia.

France

received back Guadeloupe from Sweden, with yearly installments payable to the Swedish king.
* The neutrality of the 22 cantons of Switzerland was guaranteed and a federal pact was recommended to them in strong terms. Bienne and the Prince-Bishopric of Basel became part of the Canton of Bern. The Congress also suggested a number of compromises for resolving territorial disputes between cantons.
* The former Electorate of Hanover was expanded to a kingdom. It gave up the Duchy of Lauenburg to the Kingdom of Denmark, but gained former territories of the Bishop of Münster and of the formerly Prussian East Frisia.
* Most of the territorial gains of

Bavaria

, Württemberg,

Baden

,

Hesse-Darmstadt

, and

Nassau

under the mediatizations of 1801–1806 were recognized. Bavaria also gained control of the Rhenish Palatinate and of parts of the Napoleonic Duchy of Würzburg and Grand Duchy of Frankfurt. Hesse-Darmstadt, in exchange for giving up the Duchy of Westphalia to Prussia, received Rhenish Hesse with its capital at

Mainz

.
* Austria regained control of the Tyrol and

Salzburg

; of the former Illyrian Provinces; of Tarnopol district (from Russia); received Lombardy-Venetia in Italy and

Ragusa

in

Dalmatia

. Former Austrian territory in Southwest Germany remained under the control of Württemberg and Baden; the Austrian Netherlands were also not recovered.
* Ferdinand III was restored as Grand Duke of Tuscany.
* Archduke Francis IV was acknowledged as the ruler of the Duchy of Modena, Reggio and Mirandola.
* The Papal States under the rule of the

Pope

were restored to their former extent, with the exception of

Avignon

and the

Comtat Venaissin

, which remained part of France.
* Britain retained control of the Cape Colony in Southern Africa;

Tobago

;

Ceylon

; and various other colonies in Africa and Asia. Other colonies, most notably the Dutch East Indies and

Martinique

, reverted to their previous overlords.
* The King of Sardinia, re-established in

Piedmont

, Nice, and

Savoy

, gained control of

Genoa

(putting an end to the brief proclamation of a restored Republic of Genoa).
* The Duchies of Parma, Piacenza and Guastalla were taken from the Queen of Etruria and given to Marie Louise for her lifetime.
* The Duchy of Lucca was established for the House of Bourbon-Parma, with reversionary rights to Parma after the death of Marie Louise.
* The

slave trade

was condemned.
* Freedom of navigation was guaranteed for many rivers, notably the Rhine and the Danube.

Representatives of Austria, France, Portugal, Prussia, Russia, Sweden-Norway, and Britain signed the Final Act. Spain did not sign, but ratified the outcome in 1817.

Subsequently, the Bourbon Ferdinand IV, King of Sicily, regained control of the

Kingdom of Naples

after

Joachim Murat

, the king installed by Bonaparte, supported Napoleon in the Hundred Days and started the 1815

Neapolitan War

by attacking Austria.

Other changes

The Congress's principal results, apart from its confirmation of France's loss of the territories annexed between 1795 and 1810, which had already been settled by the Treaty of Paris, were the enlargement of Russia, (which gained most of the Duchy of Warsaw) and Prussia, which acquired the district of Poznań, Swedish Pomerania, Westphalia and the northern Rhineland. The consolidation of Germany from the nearly 300 states of the Holy Roman Empire (dissolved in 1806) into a much less complex system of thirty-nine states (4 of which were free cities) was confirmed. These states formed a loose

German Confederation

under the leadership of Austria.

Representatives at the Congress agreed to numerous other territorial changes. By the Treaty of Kiel, Norway had been ceded by the king of Denmark-Norway to the king of

Sweden

. This sparked the nationalist movement which led to the establishment of the

Kingdom of Norway

on 17 May 1814 and the subsequent personal Union with

Sweden

. Austria gained Lombardy-Venetia in Northern Italy, while much of the rest of North-Central Italy went to Habsburg dynasties (the Grand Duchy of Tuscany, the Duchy of Modena, and the Duchy of Parma).

The Papal States were restored to the Pope. The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia was restored to its mainland possessions, and also gained control of the Republic of

Genoa

. In Southern Italy, Napoleon's brother-in-law,

Joachim Murat

, was originally allowed to retain his

Kingdom of Naples

, but his support of Napoleon in the Hundred Days led to the restoration of the Bourbon

Ferdinand IV

to the throne.

A large

United Kingdom of the Netherlands

was formed for the Prince of Orange, including both the old United Provinces and the formerly Austrian-ruled territories in the Southern Netherlands. Other, less important, territorial adjustments included significant territorial gains for the German Kingdoms of Hanover (which gained East Frisia from Prussia and various other territories in Northwest Germany) and Bavaria (which gained the Rhenish Palatinate and territories in

Franconia

). The Duchy of Lauenburg was transferred from Hanover to Denmark, and Prussia annexed Swedish Pomerania.

Switzerland

was enlarged, and Swiss neutrality was established. Swiss mercenaries had played a significant role in European wars for a couple of hundred years: Congress intended to put a stop to these activities permanently.

During the wars,

Portugal

had lost its town of

Olivenza

to Spain and moved to have it restored. Portugal is historically Britain's oldest ally, and with British support succeeded in having the re-incorporation of Olivenza decreed in Article CV of the General Treaty of the Final Act, which stated that "The Powers, recognizing the justice of the claims of ... Portugal and the Brazils, upon the town of Olivenza, and the other territories ceded to Spain by the Treaty of Badajoz (1801), Treaty of Badajoz of 1801". Portugal ratified the Final Act in 1815 but Spain would not sign, and this became the most important hold-out against the Congress of Vienna. Deciding in the end that it was better to become part of Europe than to stand alone, Spain finally accepted the Treaty on 7 May 1817; however, Olivenza and its surroundings were never returned to Portuguese control and this issue remains unresolved.

The United Kingdom received parts of the West Indies at the expense of the Netherlands and Spain and kept the former Dutch colonies of

Ceylon

and the Cape Colony as well as Malta and Heligoland. Under the Treaty of Paris (1814) Wikisource:Treaty of Paris (1814)#ART.VIII, Article VIII France ceded to Britain the islands of "

Tobago

and Saint Lucia, and of the Isle de France (Mauritius), Isle of France and its dependencies, especially Rodrigues and Les Seychelles", and under the Wikisource:Treaty between Great Britain and Russia, respecting the Ionian Islands, Treaty between Great Britain and Austria, Prussia and Russia, respecting the Ionian Islands (signed in Paris on 5 November 1815), as one of the treaties signed during the Treaty of Paris (1815), Peace of Paris (1815), Britain obtained a protectorate over the United States of the Ionian Islands.

Later criticism

The Congress of Vienna has frequently been criticized by 19th century and more recent historians for ignoring national and liberal impulses, and for imposing a stifling reactionary, reaction on the Continent.Olson, James Stuart – Shadle, Robert (1991)
''Historical dictionary of European imperialism''
Greenwood Press, p. 149. It was an integral part in what became known as the Conservative Order, in which the democracy and civil rights associated with the American Revolution, American and French Revolutions were de-emphasized.

In the 20th century, however, many historians came to admire the statesmen at the Congress, whose work prevented another widespread European war for nearly 100 years (1815–1914). Among these is Henry Kissinger, who in 1954 wrote his doctoral dissertation, ''A World Restored'', on it. Historian Mark Jarrett argues that the Congress of Vienna and the Congress System marked "the true beginning of our modern era". He says the Congress System was deliberate conflict management and was the first genuine attempt to create an international order based upon consensus rather than conflict. "Europe was ready," Jarrett states, "to accept an unprecedented degree of international cooperation in response to the French Revolution."Mark Jarrett, ''The Congress of Vienna and Its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon'' (2013) pp. 353, xiv, 187. Historian Paul Schroeder argues that the old formulae for "balance of power (international relations), balance of power" were in fact highly destabilizing and predatory. He says the Congress of Vienna avoided them and instead set up rules that produced a stable and benign equilibrium. The Congress of Vienna was the first of a series of international meetings that came to be known as the Concert of Europe, which was an attempt to forge a peaceful balance of power in international relations, balance of power in Europe. It served as a model for later organizations such as the League of Nations in 1919 and the United Nations in 1945.

Before the opening of the Paris peace conference of 1918, the British Foreign Office commissioned a history of the Congress of Vienna to serve as an example to its own delegates of how to achieve an equally successful peace. Besides, the main decisions of the Congress were made by the Four Great Powers and not all the countries of Europe could extend their rights at the Congress. The Italian peninsula became a mere "geographical expression" as divided into seven parts: Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia, Lombardy–Venetia, Duchy of Modena and Reggio, Modena, Kingdom of Two Sicilies, Naples–Sicily, Duchy of Parma, Parma, Kingdom of Sardinia, Piedmont–Sardinia, Grand Duchy of Tuscany, Tuscany, and the Papal States under the control of different powers. Poland remained partitioned between Russia, Prussia and Austria, with the largest part, the newly created Congress Poland, Kingdom of Poland, remaining under Russian control.

The arrangements made by the Four Great Powers sought to ensure future disputes would be settled in a manner that would avoid the terrible wars of the previous 20 years.Willner, Mark – Hero, George – Weiner, Jerry Global (2006)
''History Volume I: The Ancient World to the Age of Revolution''
Barron's Educational Series, p. 520. Although the Congress of Vienna preserved the balance of power in Europe, it could not check the spread of revolutionary movements across the continent Revolutions of 1848, some 30 years later.

See also

* Diplomatic timeline for 1815
* Precedence among European monarchies
* Concert of Europe
* European balance of power
*

Battle of Waterloo

* International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)
* Treaty of Paris (1814)
* Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)

References

Further reading

*
*
* Ferraro, Guglielmo. ''The Reconstruction of Europe; Talleyrand and the Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815'' (1941
online
* Forrest, Alan. "The Hundred Days, the Congress of Vienna and the Atlantic Slave Trade." in ''Napoleon's Hundred Days and the Politics of Legitimacy'' (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham, 2018) pp. 163–181.
* Gabriëls, Jos. "Cutting the cake: the Congress of Vienna in British, French and German political caricature." ''European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire'' 24.1 (2017): 131–157. illustrated
* Gulick, E. V. "The final coalition and the Congress of Vienna, 1813–15" in C. W. Crawley, ed., ''The New Cambridge Modern History, vol 9, 1793–1830'' (1965) pp. 639–67.
*
online review
* King, David. ''Vienna, 1814: How the conquerors of Napoleon made love, war, and peace at the congress of Vienna'' (Broadway Books, 2008), popular history
*
*
* Kohler, Max James. "Jewish Rights at the Congresses of Vienna (1814–1815) and Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)" ''Publications of the American Jewish Historical Society,'' No. 26 (1918), pp. 33–12
online
* Kraehe, Enno E. ''Metternich's German Policy. Vol. 2: The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815'' (1984)
* Kwan, Jonathan. "The Congress of Vienna, 1814–1815: diplomacy, political culture and sociability." ''Historical Journal'' 60.4 (2020
online

* Lane, Fernanda Bretones, Guilherme de Paula Costa Santos, and Alain El Youssef. "The Congress of Vienna and the making of second slavery." ''Journal of global slavery'' 4.2 (2019): 162–195.
* Langhorne, Richard. "Reflections on the Significance of the Congress of Vienna." ''Review of International Studies'' 12.4 (1986): 313–324.
*
* Nicolson, Harold. ''The Congress of Vienna: a Study in Allied Unity, 1812–1822'' (1946
online

* ("Chapter II The restoration of Europe")
* Peterson, Genevieve. "II. Political inequality at the Congress of Vienna." ''Political Science Quarterly'' 60.4 (1945): 532–554
online
* Schenk, Joep. "National interest versus common interest: The Netherlands and the liberalization of Rhine navigation at the Congress of Vienna (1814–1815)." in ''Shaping the International Relations of the Netherlands, 1815–2000'' (Routledge, 2018) pp. 13–31.
*
* Schroeder, Paul W. ''The Transformation of European Politics, 1763–1848'' (1996), pp. 517–58
online
* Sluga, Glenda. "'Who Hold the Balance of the World?' Bankers at the Congress of Vienna, and in International History." ''American Historical Review'' 122.5 (2017): 1403–1430.
* Vick, Brian. ''The Congress of Vienna. Power and Politics after Napoleon''. Harvard University Press, 2014. .
*
*
** also published as
*
*

Primary sources

*
*
*

Other languages

*

External links

Animated map Europe and nations, 1815–1914
* s:Final Act of the Congress of Vienna, Final Act of the Congress of Vienna

Map of Europe in 1815

Congress of Vienna (1814–1815)
Search Results at Internet Archive

{{Authority control

Diplomatic conferences in Austria
19th-century diplomatic conferences
Peace treaties
Treaties involving territorial changes
1814 in international relations
1814 in law
1814 in the Austrian Empire
1815 in international relations
1815 in the Austrian Empire
1815 in law
1815 conferences
1815 treaties
1815 in Europe
1815 in Switzerland
19th century in Vienna
Reactionary
European political history
Modern history of Italy
Treaties of the Austrian Empire
Treaties of the Bourbon Restoration
Treaties of the Kingdom of Portugal
Treaties of the Kingdom of Prussia
Treaties of the Russian Empire
Treaties of the United Kingdoms of Sweden and Norway
Treaties of the United Kingdom (1801–1922)
Treaties of the Spanish Empire