Confectionery in the English Renaissance
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Confections Confectionery is the art of making confections, which are food items that are rich in sugar and carbohydrates. Exact definitions are difficult. In general, however, confectionery is divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categories ...
of the
English Renaissance The English Renaissance was a cultural and artistic movement in England from the early 16th century to the early 17th century. It is associated with the pan-European Renaissance that is usually regarded as beginning in Italy in the late 14th cent ...
span a wide range of products. All were heavily based on
sugar Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Compound sugars, also called disaccharides or double ...
, which was a relatively new development. Many were considered to have medicinal properties – a belief that was influenced by the Arabic use of sugar as a medicine and that carried over from medieval sugar usage. In the mid-sixteenth century, sugar became cheaper and more widely available to the general populace due to European colonization of the New World. It began to be used more as a
flavouring A flavoring (or flavouring), also known as flavor (or flavour) or flavorant, is a food additive used to improve the taste or smell of food. It changes the perceptual impression of food as determined primarily by the chemoreceptors of the gus ...
,
preservative A preservative is a substance or a chemical that is added to products such as food products, beverages, pharmaceutical drugs, paints, biological samples, cosmetics, wood, and many other products to prevent decomposition by microbial growth or by ...
, and
sweetener {{Wiktionary, sweetener A sweetener is a substance added to food or drink to impart the flavor of sweetness, either because it contains a type of sugar, or because it contains a sweet-tasting sugar substitute. Many artificial sweeteners have been ...
, as it is today, rather than as medicine.


Origins

Before the
Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history marking the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and covering the 15th and 16th centuries, characterized by an effort to revive and surpass ideas ...
era, confections typically consisted of exotic imports from the Mediterranean and the Middle East such as almonds, citrus fruits, rosewater, spices, and sometimes, sugar. The exclusivity and high cost of ingredients made confectionery a respected trade. While
sugarcane Sugarcane or sugar cane is a species of (often hybrid) tall, Perennial plant, perennial grass (in the genus ''Saccharum'', tribe Andropogoneae) that is used for sugar Sugar industry, production. The plants are 2–6 m (6–20 ft) tall with ...
had been known in Europe since Roman times, it had previously been dismissed in favor of
honey Honey is a sweet and viscous substance made by several bees, the best-known of which are honey bees. Honey is made and stored to nourish bee colonies. Bees produce honey by gathering and then refining the sugary secretions of plants (primar ...
as a sweetener. It became more widely used after Arabs and Persians developed the process that produces
refined sugar White sugar, also called table sugar, granulated sugar, or regular sugar, is a commonly used type of sugar, made either of beet sugar or cane sugar, which has undergone a refining process. Description The refining process completely removes ...
. Italian traders were instrumental in the trade of sugar and other confections from the Middle East to Europe, especially in the Middle Ages.
Venice Venice ( ; it, Venezia ; vec, Venesia or ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 small islands that are separated by canals and linked by over 400  ...
was a particularly important trading hub, very dominant in the diffusion of Arabic sugar skills and medicine. Sugar became more common in Europe starting in the 1420s, after Portuguese colonies began to cultivate sugarcane and overtook imports from the Middle East. The price of sugar dropped significantly after New World imports began to dominate the market in the mid-sixteenth century. This allowed for the increased production of
sweetmeats Confectionery is the art of making confections, which are food items that are rich in sugar and carbohydrates. Exact definitions are difficult. In general, however, confectionery is divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categorie ...
as desserts, and the confectioner could expand his market to people beyond the upper classes. Originally associated with medicine, sugar's role as a main ingredient in confections and preservatives became more popular in the early Renaissance. Noblewomen would engage in confectionery as a hobby, which partly gave rise to the tradition of
banquets A banquet (; ) is a formal large meal where a number of people consume food together. Banquets are traditionally held to enhance the prestige of a host, or reinforce social bonds among joint contributors. Modern examples of these purposes i ...
in England.


Colonialism

Renaissance confectionery was heavily reliant on sugar. Colonization in the New World did not significantly affect the sugar trade until the mid-sixteenth century. Spanish colonies in the Canaries and Portuguese colonies in the
Azores ) , motto =( en, "Rather die free than subjected in peace") , anthem= ( en, "Anthem of the Azores") , image_map=Locator_map_of_Azores_in_EU.svg , map_alt=Location of the Azores within the European Union , map_caption=Location of the Azores wi ...
, Madeira, and
São Tomé São Tomé is the capital and largest city of the Central African island country of São Tomé and Príncipe. Its name is Portuguese for " Saint Thomas". Founded in the 15th century, it is one of Africa's oldest colonial cities. History Álva ...
were the first to use slaves to produce sugar. The
West Indies The West Indies is a subregion of North America, surrounded by the North Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea that includes 13 independent island countries and 18 dependencies and other territories in three major archipelagos: the Greater A ...
soon proved to be more conducive to sugarcane production and colonizing countries sent Africans as slaves to work on sugarcane plantations there from the early sixteenth century. The
Atlantic slave trade The Atlantic slave trade, transatlantic slave trade, or Euro-American slave trade involved the transportation by slave traders of enslaved African people, mainly to the Americas. The slave trade regularly used the triangular trade route and i ...
fuelled sugar production and imports into England and continued for centuries until its abolition in 1807. Voyages were deadly due to torturous conditions on ships, and plantation work was laborious and slaves would often perish from the physical stress. Planting sugarcane involved digging pits in a way that plows could not, then harvesting it and crushing it in sugar mills to produce sugar. Additionally, the crop itself was more labour-intensive that other cash crops such as
cotton Cotton is a soft, fluffy staple fiber that grows in a boll, or protective case, around the seeds of the cotton plants of the genus ''Gossypium'' in the mallow family Malvaceae. The fiber is almost pure cellulose, and can contain minor perce ...
. The sugar slave trade is considered to be the first occurrence of mass slavery since Roman times.


Types


Sweetmeats

"
Sweetmeats Confectionery is the art of making confections, which are food items that are rich in sugar and carbohydrates. Exact definitions are difficult. In general, however, confectionery is divided into two broad and somewhat overlapping categorie ...
" is a term that encompasses a wide range of confections prepared with sugar. Quince was a versatile and popular fruit in the Renaissance. It was used for medicinal preparations and eaten preserved, jellied, and as the main ingredient in marmalades.
Marmalade Marmalade is a fruit preserve made from the juice and peel of citrus fruits boiled with sugar and water. The well-known version is made from bitter orange. It is also made from lemons, limes, grapefruits, mandarins, sweet oranges, bergamo ...
in the Renaissance was a quince paste cooked in sugar, sometimes enhanced with rosewater, spices, perfumes such as
musk Musk ( Persian: مشک, ''Mushk'') is a class of aromatic substances commonly used as base notes in perfumery. They include glandular secretions from animals such as the musk deer, numerous plants emitting similar fragrances, and artificial sub ...
, and fruit juices. It would be set in decorative moulds and could be served with comfits placed on top.
Syrup In cooking, a syrup (less commonly sirup; from ar, شراب; , beverage, wine and la, sirupus) is a condiment that is a thick, viscous liquid consisting primarily of a solution of sugar in water, containing a large amount of dissolved sugars ...
is a sugar-based confection made by boiling sugar and water, either served alone or with candied fruits or other flavourings. Syrups as a fruit preservative gained popularity with the lower classes once the price of sugar dropped in the late sixteenth century. Before this, upper-class women made it at home. The use of syrup as a preservative originated in Arabic countries; England was exposed to it through the import of preserved citrus fruits. Conserves were made "by pounding fresh herbs, flowers or fruits with sugar to form a thick, sticky mass." They were most often made with aromatic flowers and could be enhanced with medicinal ingredients. Some popular examples include the conserves of red roses, marigolds,
violets Violet identifies various plant taxa, particularly species in the genus ''Viola'', within which the common violet is the best known member in Eurasia and the common blue violet and common purple violet are the best known members in North America ...
,
chicory Common chicory (''Cichorium intybus'') is a somewhat woody, perennial herbaceous plant of the family Asteraceae, usually with bright blue flowers, rarely white or pink. Native to the Old World, it has been introduced to North America and Austra ...
, rosemary, lavender, barberries, apricots, and oranges. Biscuits were present both at court banquets and in the household. Their name means "twice-cooked", alluding to the method of baking that gives them a crispy crust. Another method of preparation was to boil the dough in a sugar syrup, resulting in a different texture. Biscuits would be made into a variety of shapes, such as letters and knots, and frequently served at court. Marchpane, made from
almond paste Almond paste is made from ground almonds or almond meal and sugar in equal quantities, with small amounts of cooking oil, beaten eggs, heavy cream or corn syrup added as a binder. It is similar to ''marzipan'', but has a coarser texture. Almond pas ...
, rosewater, and powdered sugar, was easily moulded into any form. Wafers were made by cooking batter between patterned irons and could be rolled into a cone and filled with something sweet. They could be flavoured with orangeflower water or coffee.


Comfits

A
comfit Comfits are confectionery consisting of dried fruits, nuts, seeds or spices coated with sugar candy, often through sugar panning. Almond comfits (also known as "sugared almonds" or " Jordan almonds") in a muslin bag or other decorative contain ...
was a spice, seed, or nut coated with sugar. One of the first confections, it originated in the Middle East as a medicine for
indigestion Indigestion, also known as dyspepsia or upset stomach, is a condition of impaired digestion. Symptoms may include upper abdominal fullness, heartburn, nausea, belching, or upper abdominal pain. People may also experience feeling full earlier t ...
and reached Europe through Italian merchants. It was the main specialty of confectioners in Renaissance England and was sold in apothecaries as well. To make a comfit, confectioners used a balancing pan to lay out the food being covered and subsequently coated it with
gum arabic Gum arabic, also known as gum sudani, acacia gum, Arabic gum, gum acacia, acacia, Senegal gum, Indian gum, and by other names, is a natural gum originally consisting of the hardened sap of two species of the ''Acacia'' tree, '' Senegalia se ...
to prevent oils from disturbing the sugar coat. Finally, multiple layers of sugar syrup were applied and the comfits were dried in the sun. The final layers usually included a colourant such as
saffron Saffron () is a spice derived from the flower of ''Crocus sativus'', commonly known as the "saffron crocus". The vivid crimson stigma and styles, called threads, are collected and dried for use mainly as a seasoning and colouring agent in ...
, beet juice, or spinach juice. The sugar syrup itself could also be flavoured or perfumed with
musk Musk ( Persian: مشک, ''Mushk'') is a class of aromatic substances commonly used as base notes in perfumery. They include glandular secretions from animals such as the musk deer, numerous plants emitting similar fragrances, and artificial sub ...
,
ambergris Ambergris ( or , la, ambra grisea, fro, ambre gris), ''ambergrease'', or grey amber is a solid, waxy, flammable substance of a dull grey or blackish colour produced in the digestive system of sperm whales. Freshly produced ambergris has a mari ...
, rosewater, or other floral distillations. There were two main types of comfits: smooth and ragged. They differed in the density of sugar syrup that coated them, and thus had different textures. Long comfits, slivers of
cinnamon Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several tree species from the genus ''Cinnamomum''. Cinnamon is used mainly as an aromatic condiment and flavouring additive in a wide variety of cuisines, sweet and savoury dishes, breakfa ...
and orange, were used extensively for decoration. The most popular comfits were coated
caraway seed Caraway, also known as meridian fennel and Persian cumin (''Carum carvi''), is a biennial plant in the family Apiaceae, native to western Asia, Europe, and North Africa. Etymology The etymology of "caraway" is unclear. Caraway has been ...
s,
aniseed Anise (; '), also called aniseed or rarely anix is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae native to Eurasia. The flavor and aroma of its seeds have similarities with some other spices and herbs, such as star anise, fennel, licorice, and t ...
,
fennel Fennel (''Foeniculum vulgare'') is a flowering plant species in the carrot family. It is a hardy, perennial herb with yellow flowers and feathery leaves. It is indigenous to the shores of the Mediterranean but has become widely naturalized ...
seeds, coriander seeds, and almonds.


Health and medicine

Sugar was originally introduced to Europe as a preservative and a medicine. European apothecaries adopted many of their practices from Arabic physicians. Renaissance medicine partly relied on diet. Dieticians recommended consuming sugar to prevent adverse effects believed to arise from other foods. Certain properties were assigned to food, and a food's nutritional value was determined by its taste and supposed effect on the body. Sugar, for example, was categorized as "hot and moist" – complementary to the human body.
Ken Albala Ken Albala is Professor of History at the University of the Pacific (United States) University of the Pacific (Pacific or UOP) is a private Methodist-affiliated university with its main campus in Stockton, California, and graduate campuses i ...
argues that this made sugar "a prime candidate for the miracle food category," being used extensively in feasts at court and praised for its medicinal value.


The apothecary

The Renaissance
apothecary ''Apothecary'' () is a mostly archaic term for a medical professional who formulates and dispenses '' materia medica'' (medicine) to physicians, surgeons, and patients. The modern chemist (British English) or pharmacist (British and North Ameri ...
was a shop that sold medicines and, at times, prescribed them. Medicines would be prepared with the model of the
four humours Humorism, the humoral theory, or humoralism, was a system of medicine detailing a supposed makeup and workings of the human body, adopted by Ancient Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers. Humorism began to fall out of favor in the 1850s ...
in mind. Apothecaries would often take an individualized approach, making personalized medicines. The apothecary was the main purveyor of sugar-based concoctions until the confectioner began to sell sugar as a food instead of a medicine in the later Renaissance. Some typical products were syrups, preserves of herbs and roots, floral sugars, lozenges, and comfits. Sugar would be used to preserve and flavour otherwise
unpalatable Palatability (or palatableness) is the hedonic reward (i.e., pleasure) provided by foods or fluids that are agreeable to the "palate", which often varies relative to the homeostatic satisfaction of nutritional, water, or energy needs. The palatabi ...
medicines and to make carrier substances for medicines, such as enhanced marmalades.


Examples of medicines

Sticks of pulled sugar called ''al fänäd'' were used in the Middle East as a remedy for cough and fever, and English apothecaries frequently sold these as alphenics (the precursors to modern cough drops). Cordial waters, adapted into dessert-like refreshments after the Renaissance, were alcoholic infusions considered as medicine for a wide range of maladies. Sweet foods were frequently prescribed for chest ailments. Floral sugars, flavoured with violets and roses, originated in the Middle East and were touted as cough cures. Similarly, conserves of flowers and herbs were used to treat numerous ailments. Simple quince marmalade was often used as a base for medicinal preparations. One such medicine for "Diseases of the Head" that was considered to cure maladies ranging from fits to epilepsy was called ''Marmelada Cephalica.'' Besides quince, it consisted of salt of a man's skull, amber, and mace. Caraway and
anise Anise (; '), also called aniseed or rarely anix is a flowering plant in the family Apiaceae native to Eurasia. The flavor and aroma of its seeds have similarities with some other spices and herbs, such as star anise, fennel, licorice, and ta ...
ed comfits, quince marmalades, spiced waters, and cordials were also consumed post-banquet to soothe indigestion in guests who had likely overeaten. Medicines were not only prepared in the apothecary. A number of recipe books existed for household use, mainly by upper class ladies. One common domestic preparation was syrup. In a medicinal context, syrups were used to concentrate the perceived healing properties of a particular food, make bitter medicines more palatable, and as a carrier for other healing substances. Syrups could be based on a variety of flowers, fruits, spices, and herbs. Their main usage was to "soothe an inflamed organ" and invigorate weakened people, but different syrups focused on different maladies. The two most common syrups were made of
violet Violet may refer to: Common meanings * Violet (color), a spectral color with wavelengths shorter than blue * One of a list of plants known as violet, particularly: ** ''Viola'' (plant), a genus of flowering plants Places United States * Viol ...
s, for lowering a fever, and roses, for taming the temper.


The banquet

The English sweet banquet was an early form of the modern dessert course, consisting of sweet confections, spiced drinks, and complex sugarwork served after the main meal. It evolved from the medieval "void": a post-dinner course where small treats were served after the table had been cleared, or "voided". Additionally, it was also influenced by the Italian ''collazione'', or "sugar collation", a luxurious presentation of sweetmeats and sugar sculptures. A banquet was a performance as well as a meal. It originated in court in the early 1500s and quickly became a status symbol among English nobility, often being served in the presence of important guests. Confectioners and hosts would put great effort into decoration and presentation. Purees of fruits such as apricots, citrus fruits, cherries, and
gooseberries Gooseberry ( or (American and northern British) or (southern British)) is a common name for many species of ''Ribes'' (which also includes currants), as well as a large number of plants of similar appearance. The berries of those in the genu ...
would be boiled with sugar and poured into intricate moulds. Once set, confectioners would create knots, words, or artificial fruits from the stiff marmalade to use as decoration. Sugar syrups would be solidified into sculptures, sometimes representing historical or mythological figures. These would serve a mainly visual purpose, not always intended for consumption. Jumbals, "intricately knotted biscuits" of Italian origin, would be shaped into letters and used to spell out topics the host wanted to discuss. Contrast between sight and taste was an important feature of presentation. At times, confectioners would purposefully create foods to "fool" the diner. Recipe books from the period include how to make, for example, an imitation ham from sugar, berries, and flowers; artichokes and asparagus from marzipan; and "objects, such as coats of arms". Sweetmeats frequently served in banquets included fruits preserved in sugar syrup, marmalades, moulded fruit pastes, comfits, conserves, and biscuits. Quince marmalade was a common feature of Elizabethan-era banquets, served in tandem with other preserves. A common practice after a meal would be to "seal" or placate the stomach with quince marmalade. Comfits and cordial waters served a similar purpose, which were consumed to counteract the effects of eating too much.


In literature and onstage

Banquets often appear in Shakespeare's plays. In ''The Tempest'', Ariel taunts shipwrecked sailors by making a banquet appear and disappear. Julia Reinhard Lupton interprets this scene as "a demonstration of the violation of humanist convivial ideals in courtly culture". ''Romeo and Juliet'' demonstrates the setting of a banquet in act 1, scene 5, and Capulet acts in a way that suggests it is not important. Critics state that banquet scenes such as these illustrate the divide between servants assembling the banquet and nobility who feast at it.
John Webster John Webster (c. 1580 – c. 1632) was an English Jacobean dramatist best known for his tragedies '' The White Devil'' and '' The Duchess of Malfi'', which are often seen as masterpieces of the early 17th-century English stage. His life and c ...
's ''The Duchess of Malfi'' includes a scene where the title character's last words are "giv'st my little boy/ Some syrup for his cold". This has been interpreted as a transition from a "disobedient wife" to a "tender mother". Wendy Wall focuses on syrup as a domestic symbol and relates it to noblewomen's common practice of making household medicines.


References

{{reflist Sugar industry in the United Kingdom History of sugar English cuisine