The Chu–Han Contention ( zh, , lk=on) or Chu–Han War () was an
interregnum period in
ancient China
The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC), during the reign of king Wu Ding. Ancient historical texts such as the '' Book of Documents'' (early chapt ...
between the fallen
Qin dynasty
The Qin dynasty ( ; zh, c=秦朝, p=Qín cháo, w=), or Ch'in dynasty in Wade–Giles romanization ( zh, c=, p=, w=Ch'in ch'ao), was the first dynasty of Imperial China. Named for its heartland in Qin state (modern Gansu and Shaanxi), ...
and the subsequent
Han dynasty
The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...
. After the third and last Qin ruler,
Ziying,
unconditionally surrendered to rebel forces in
206 BCE, the former Qin Empire was divided by rebel leader
Xiang Yu into the
Eighteen Kingdoms, which were ruled by various rebel leaders and surrendered Qin generals. A
civil war
A civil war or intrastate war is a war between organized groups within the same state (or country).
The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government polici ...
soon broke out, most prominently between two major contending powers – Xiang Yu's
Western Chu and
Liu Bang's
Han. Some of the other kingdoms also waged war among themselves but these were largely insignificant compared to the main conflict between Chu and Han. The war ended in
202 BCE with a total Han victory at the
Battle of Gaixia, where Xiang Yu fled to Wujiang and committed suicide after a violent
last stand. Liu Bang subsequently proclaimed himself
Emperor
An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother ( ...
and established the Han dynasty as the ruling dynasty of China.
Background
In 221 BCE, the
Qin state conquered the other
six major states and unified China under the rule of the
Qin dynasty
The Qin dynasty ( ; zh, c=秦朝, p=Qín cháo, w=), or Ch'in dynasty in Wade–Giles romanization ( zh, c=, p=, w=Ch'in ch'ao), was the first dynasty of Imperial China. Named for its heartland in Qin state (modern Gansu and Shaanxi), ...
. After
Qin Shi Huang
Qin Shi Huang (, ; 259–210 BC) was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of a unified China. Rather than maintain the title of " king" ( ''wáng'') borne by the previous Shang and Zhou rulers, he ruled as the First Empero ...
, the first Qin emperor, died in 210 BCE,
an uprising broke out in 209 BCE and lasted about five months before Qin forces defeated the rebels.
Although the uprising was crushed, several other rebellions erupted consecutively over the next three years. Numerous restorationists and
pretenders of the six former states emerged. Among them, the most powerful one was
Chu.
Xiang Yu, a young Chu nobleman and rebel general, scored a major victory over the Qin army at the
Battle of Julu and declared himself "Hegemon-King of Western Chu" even though he still paid nominal allegiance to
King Huai II, the figurehead ruler of Chu. Xiang Yu controlled nine
commanderies in the former
Liang and Chu territories, with his capital at Pengcheng (; present-day
Xuzhou
Xuzhou (徐州), also known as Pengcheng (彭城) in ancient times, is a major city in northwestern Jiangsu province, China. The city, with a recorded population of 9,083,790 at the 2020 census (3,135,660 of which lived in the built-up area ma ...
,
Jiangsu
Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with it ...
).
While the Qin army was fighting Chu forces at the Battle of Julu, another rebel force led by
Liu Bang advanced into the
Guanzhong
Guanzhong (, formerly romanised as Kwanchung) region, also known as the Guanzhong Basin, Wei River Basin, or uncommonly as the Shaanzhong region, is a historical region of China corresponding to the crescentic graben basin within present-day ce ...
region, the heartland of Qin, and faced minimal resistance from Qin forces along the way. In 206 BCE, the last Qin emperor,
Ziying, surrendered the capital
Xianyang
Xianyang () is a prefecture-level city in central Shaanxi province, situated on the Wei River a few kilometers upstream (west) from the provincial capital of Xi'an. Once the capital of the Qin dynasty, it is now integrated into the Xi'an m ...
to Liu Bang, thus bringing an end to the Qin dynasty. Liu Bang treated Ziying respectfully and forbade his followers from harming civilians and looting the city when they occupied it. However, he was pressured into ceding the control of Guanzhong region over to Xiang Yu when the latter arrived, despite the earlier promise by King Huai that the first to invade Guanzhong would rightfully own it as
fief
A fief (; la, feudum) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a form ...
. After Xiang seized control of the city Xianyang allowed his troops to pillage and plunder the former Qin capital, and even ordered the
Epang Palace to be burnt down. He also tried to assassinate Liu Bang at the
Feast of Hong Gate (who only narrowly escaped due to Xiang's indecisiveness), and later forced Liu to relocated to the remote and underdeveloped Bashu region (present-day
Chongqing and
Sichuan
Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of t ...
).
Xiang Yu then divided the former Qin Empire into numerous vassal states, each ruled by either a rebel leader or a surrendered Qin general. The states were collectively known as the
Eighteen Kingdoms, with the Kingdom of Chu as the nominal sovereign power over the other kingdoms. Xiang Yu also honoured King Huai II with a higher title, "Emperor Yi of Chu". Shortly after that, he had the figurehead emperor exiled to Chen County (; present-day
Chenzhou,
Hunan
Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangx ...
), and secretly ordered
Ying Bu, the King of Jiujiang, to intercept and assassinate Emperor Yi along the way.
Initial stages
In 206 BCE, after the former Qin Empire was divided into the
Eighteen Kingdoms, Liu Bang was made King of Han and relocated to the Bashu region (present-day
Chongqing and
Sichuan
Sichuan (; zh, c=, labels=no, ; zh, p=Sìchuān; alternatively romanized as Szechuan or Szechwan; formerly also referred to as "West China" or "Western China" by Protestant missions) is a province in Southwest China occupying most of t ...
) along with 30,000 troops and thousands of civilians. Upon reaching his destination, Liu Bang ordered the destruction of the
gallery roads leading into Bashu in order to trick Xiang Yu into believing that he had no intention of leaving Bashu, and as a precautionary move against any attack from outside Bashu.
Rebellions in Qi and Zhao
Meanwhile, in the former
Qi state,
Tian Rong, a Qi noble, was unhappy with how the Qi territories had been split among three kingdoms – Qi, Jiaodong and Jibei (collectively known as the Three Qis) – so he waged war against the other kingdoms. He killed Tian Shi, the King of Jiaodong, and Tian An, the King of Jibei. Tian Du, the King of Qi, lost to Tian Rong so he fled and joined Xiang Yu. Tian Rong gained control of the Three Qis and became the new king of the Qi territories.
Tian Rong put
Peng Yue in command of the Qi army and sent him to attack Xiang Yu. At the same time, he sent troops to support
Chen Yu in a rebellion in the former
Zhao state. In 205 BCE, Chen Yu defeated
Zhang Er
Zhang Er (, born 1960) is the pen name of Chinese and American poet, translator, and opera librettist Mingxia Li (). Born in Beijing, China, where she trained as a physician, she has lived in the United States since 1986. She earned a Ph.D. in Mol ...
, the King of Changshan, and seized control of his kingdom. Chen Yu then installed
Zhao Xie, the King of Dai, as the new ruler of the Zhao territories.
Xiang Yu felt threatened by the rebellions in Qi and Zhao so he led his forces to attack Tian Rong.
Han conquest of the Three Qins
While Xiang Yu was away suppressing the rebellions in Qi and Zhao, Liu Bang seized the opportunity to attack the territories ruled by three former Qin generals which were collectively known as the
Three Qins. He ordered his general
Han Xin
Han Xin (; 231/230–196 BC) was a Chinese military general and politician who served Liu Bang during the Chu–Han Contention and contributed greatly to the founding of the Han dynasty. Han Xin was named as one of the "Three Heroes of the e ...
to pretend to repair the
gallery roads leading from Bashu to the Three Qins in order to put the enemy off guard, while secretly taking another route through Chencang (present-day
Chencang District,
Baoji
() is a prefecture-level city in western Shaanxi province, People's Republic of China. Since the early 1990s, Baoji has been the second largest city in Shaanxi.
Geography
The prefecture-level city of Baoji had a population of 3,321,853 accor ...
,
Shaanxi
Shaanxi (alternatively Shensi, see § Name) is a landlocked province of China. Officially part of Northwest China, it borders the province-level divisions of Shanxi (NE, E), Henan (E), Hubei (SE), Chongqing (S), Sichuan (SW), Gansu (W), N ...
) to get to the Three Qins. Han Xin took
Zhang Han, the King of Yong, by surprise and defeated him in two consecutive battles.
Riding on the tide of victory, Liu Bang proceeded to conquer
Longxi (the area in present-day
Gansu
Gansu (, ; alternately romanized as Kansu) is a province in Northwest China. Its capital and largest city is Lanzhou, in the southeast part of the province.
The seventh-largest administrative district by area at , Gansu lies between the Tibe ...
located west of
Mount Long),
Beidi (, eastern Gansu and
Ningxia) and
Shangjun (; around present-day
Yulin,
Shaanxi
Shaanxi (alternatively Shensi, see § Name) is a landlocked province of China. Officially part of Northwest China, it borders the province-level divisions of Shanxi (NE, E), Henan (E), Hubei (SE), Chongqing (S), Sichuan (SW), Gansu (W), N ...
). He also sent his men to fetch his family in
Pei (; in present-day
Xuzhou
Xuzhou (徐州), also known as Pengcheng (彭城) in ancient times, is a major city in northwestern Jiangsu province, China. The city, with a recorded population of 9,083,790 at the 2020 census (3,135,660 of which lived in the built-up area ma ...
,
Jiangsu
Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with it ...
). Upon receiving news of Liu Bang's attacks, Xiang Yu sent an army to Yangjia (; present-day
Taikang County,
Henan
Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is a ...
) to block Liu Bang's forces, and appointed
Zheng Chang as the King of
Hán to help him cover his flank.
In the meantime,
Zang Tu, the King of
Yan, killed
Han Guang, the King of
Liaodong, seized his lands and proclaimed himself the ruler of the Yan territories.
Battle of Pengcheng
In 205 BCE, after conquering the
Guanzhong
Guanzhong (, formerly romanised as Kwanchung) region, also known as the Guanzhong Basin, Wei River Basin, or uncommonly as the Shaanzhong region, is a historical region of China corresponding to the crescentic graben basin within present-day ce ...
region, Liu Bang advanced to the east of
Hangu Pass to prepare for an attack on the
Henan
Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is a ...
region.
Sima Xin
Sima Xin (died 204 BC) was a military general of the Qin dynasty. He surrendered to Xiang Yu after the Battle of Julu in 207 BC. In 206 BC, following the collapse of the Qin dynasty, he was conferred the title of "King of Sai" by Xiang Yu and gi ...
, the King of Sai,
Dong Yi, the King of Di, and
Shen Yang, the King of Henan, surrendered to Liu Bang.
Zheng Chang, the King of
Hán, refused to submit to Liu Bang so Liu Bang sent
Hán Xin to attack and defeat him. Liu Bang then replaced Zheng Chang with Hán Xin as the new King of Hán.
Zhang Er
Zhang Er (, born 1960) is the pen name of Chinese and American poet, translator, and opera librettist Mingxia Li (). Born in Beijing, China, where she trained as a physician, she has lived in the United States since 1986. She earned a Ph.D. in Mol ...
, the former King of Changshan, joined Liu Bang after losing his domain to
Zhao Xie and Chen Yu.
In the third
lunar month
In lunar calendars, a lunar month is the time between two successive syzygies of the same type: new moons or full moons. The precise definition varies, especially for the beginning of the month.
Variations
In Shona, Middle Eastern, and Eur ...
of 205 BCE, Liu Bang attacked
Henei
Henei Commandery ( zh, 河內郡) was a commandery of China from Han dynasty to Tang dynasty, located in modern Henan province, to the north of Yellow River.
In ancient China, Henei ("Inside the Yellow River") referred to the land north of the lo ...
with help from
Wei Bao, the King of
Western Wei. When Liu Bang received news that Xiang Yu had ordered the assassination of
Emperor Yi, the nominal sovereign over the Eighteen Kingdoms, he held a memorial service for the emperor and accused Xiang Yu of committing regicide, using this incident as political propaganda to justify his war against Xiang Yu.
In the fourth lunar month of 205 BCE, Xiang Yu defeated
Tian Rong at Chengyang (; around present-day
Ju County
Ju County or Juxian () is a county of Rizhao City, in the south of Shandong Province, People's Republic of China. As of the end of 2021, the total registered population of Ju County was 1.167 million. It covers an area of .
The Fulaishan Scenic ...
,
Shandong
Shandong ( , ; ; Chinese postal romanization, alternately romanized as Shantung) is a coastal Provinces of China, province of the China, People's Republic of China and is part of the East China region.
Shandong has played a major role in His ...
). Tian Rong was killed while retreating to
Pingyuan (around present-day northwestern Shandong). Although the Kingdom of Qi had surrendered, Xiang Yu still allowed his troops to plunder and loot the Qi territories. Tian Rong's younger brother,
Tian Heng, made
Tian Guang, Tian Rong's son, the new King of Qi, and continued to put up resistance against Xiang Yu.
Meanwhile, Liu Bang had mustered an army of about 560,000 with support from the kings who surrendered to him. In the eighth lunar month of 205 BCE, the Chu capital, Pengcheng (彭城; present-day
Xuzhou
Xuzhou (徐州), also known as Pengcheng (彭城) in ancient times, is a major city in northwestern Jiangsu province, China. The city, with a recorded population of 9,083,790 at the 2020 census (3,135,660 of which lived in the built-up area ma ...
,
Jiangsu
Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with it ...
), fell to a coalition force led by Liu Bang. When Xiang Yu received news that Liu Bang had occupied Pengcheng, he led 30,000 troops to retake Pengcheng. Liu Bang was caught off guard and his army suffered heavy casualties and his family members were captured by Chu forces. After the battle, Liu Bang lost his territorial gains in Chu and the support of his allies.
Battle of Jingsuo
After their defeat at Pengcheng, the strength of the Han forces decreased drastically. Liu Bang's family members were captured by Chu forces and kept as hostages. Many of the kings who had surrendered to Liu Bang earlier defected to Xiang Yu's side after Liu Bang's defeat. Moreover, the
Qi and
Zhao Zhao may refer to:
* Zhao (surname) (赵), a Chinese surname
** commonly spelled Chao in Taiwan or up until the early 20th century in other regions
** Chiu, from the Cantonese pronunciation
** Cho (Korean surname), represent the Hanja 趙 (Chine ...
kingdoms, which were previously at war with Chu, also requested to make peace with Chu.
Upon reaching Xiayi (; east of present-day
Dangshan County,
Anhui
Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze Riv ...
), which was guarded by his brother-in-law, Liu Bang reorganised his troops for a retreat. Meanwhile, Han Xin led reinforcements from Guanzhong into the Central Plain and attacked and defeated a Chu army between Jing County () and Suo Village (), both in present-day
Henan
Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is a ...
. He also put down a rebellion by Wang Wu and Cheng Chu - former Qin commanders - and Shen Tu, the magistrate of Wei, capturing their base, the city of Waihuang. He and Liu Bang reorganized the Han army and established strong Han garrisons in the cities of Xingyang and Chenggao in the Central Plain. Han Xin also developed his plan to conquer northern China, with the aim that Xiang Yu would be too distracted by Liu Bang and his bases of Xingyang and Chenggao to properly counter Han Xin in the north, nor could he endanger his line of retreat by marching past Xingyang and Chenggao into Guanzhong.
Liu Bang then sent a messenger to meet
Ying Bu, the King of Jiujiang, to persuade Ying Bu to support him. In November, after Han Xin's victory in the
battle of Jingxing (see below), Ying Bu agreed to join Liu Bang and rebelled against Xiang Yu. Upon learning about it, Xiang Yu sent
Long Ju
Long Ju (died 204 BC) was a military general who served under the warlord Xiang Yu during the Chu–Han Contention.
Life
Long Ju was a childhood friend of Xiang Yu and they were said to be as close as brothers. When Xiang Liang (Xiang Yu's uncle ...
to attack Ying Bu.
In the sixth lunar month of 205 BCE, Liu Bang named his son
Liu Ying as his heir apparent and put him in charge of Yueyang (; present-day
Yanliang District,
Xi'an,
Shaanxi
Shaanxi (alternatively Shensi, see § Name) is a landlocked province of China. Officially part of Northwest China, it borders the province-level divisions of Shanxi (NE, E), Henan (E), Hubei (SE), Chongqing (S), Sichuan (SW), Gansu (W), N ...
). Shortly after, Han forces conquered Feiqiu (; present-day
Xingping, Shaanxi), which was guarded by
Zhang Han, who committed suicide after his defeat.
On another front, Ying Bu was unable to resist Long Ju's attacks so he gave up on his domain in Jiujiang and joined Liu Bang.
Northern front
Battle of Anyi
In 205 BCE,
Wei Bao, the King of
Western Wei, left Liu Bang on the pretext of visiting an ill relative and secretly returned to his domain. He pledged allegiance to Xiang Yu and rebelled against Liu Bang. Liu Bang sent
Li Yiji
Li Yiji (268–204 BC)Note that Li Yiji's given name 食其 is pronounced "Yìjī" and not "Shíqí" in Mandarin. The Chinese character 食, when used in a person's name, is pronounced "Yì". The Chinese character 基 did not exist during the H ...
to persuade Wei Bao to surrender but Wei Bao refused, so Liu Bang ordered
Han Xin
Han Xin (; 231/230–196 BC) was a Chinese military general and politician who served Liu Bang during the Chu–Han Contention and contributed greatly to the founding of the Han dynasty. Han Xin was named as one of the "Three Heroes of the e ...
to attack Wei Bao.
Wei Bao stationed his army at Puban (; present-day
Yongji,
Shanxi
Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-leve ...
) and blocked the route to Linjin (; present-day
Dali County,
Shaanxi
Shaanxi (alternatively Shensi, see § Name) is a landlocked province of China. Officially part of Northwest China, it borders the province-level divisions of Shanxi (NE, E), Henan (E), Hubei (SE), Chongqing (S), Sichuan (SW), Gansu (W), N ...
). Han Xin tricked Wei Bao into believing that he was planning to attack Linjin, while secretly sending a force from Xiayang (; present-day
Hancheng,
Shaanxi
Shaanxi (alternatively Shensi, see § Name) is a landlocked province of China. Officially part of Northwest China, it borders the province-level divisions of Shanxi (NE, E), Henan (E), Hubei (SE), Chongqing (S), Sichuan (SW), Gansu (W), N ...
) to cross the river and attack Anyi (; present-day
Xia County
Xia County or Xiaxian () is a county in the southwest of Shanxi province, People's Republic of China, bordering Henan
Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is o ...
,
Shanxi
Shanxi (; ; formerly romanised as Shansi) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China and is part of the North China region. The capital and largest city of the province is Taiyuan, while its next most populated prefecture-leve ...
).
In the ninth lunar month of 205 BCE, Wei Bao personally led an attack on Han Xin but lost the battle and was captured. When he surrendered, Liu Bang accepted his surrender and appointed him as a general. Within the same month, Han Xin attacked the Kingdom of Dai with support from
Zhang Er
Zhang Er (, born 1960) is the pen name of Chinese and American poet, translator, and opera librettist Mingxia Li (). Born in Beijing, China, where she trained as a physician, she has lived in the United States since 1986. She earned a Ph.D. in Mol ...
, the former King of Changshan, scored a decisive victory against Dai, and captured Xia Shuo, the Dai chancellor.
Battle of Jingxing
After achieving victory over the Kingdom of Dai, Han Xin and Zhang Er attacked the
Kingdom of Zhao at
Jingxing Pass.
Zhao Xie, the King of Zhao, and his chancellor,
Chen Yu, led an army of 200,000 to resist the Han forces. The Zhao general Li Zuoche proposed a plan to trap Han Xin within 10 days: he would lead 30,000 men to disrupt Han Xin's supply route and block his return route, while Chen Yu would defend the frontline firmly and prevent Han Xin from advancing. Chen Yu refused to implement Li Zuoche's plan.
The evening before the battle, Han Xin sent 2,000 horsemen, each carrying a flag of the Han army, to station near the Zhao camp. The next morning, Han Xin feigned defeat in a skirmish with Zhao forces and lured them to follow him, while his 2,000 men took advantage of the situation to capture the weakly defended Zhao camp. Meanwhile, the Zhao soldiers retreated after failing to conquer Han Xin's fort, and were surprised to see that their camp had been occupied by Han forces when they returned. The Zhao army fell into chaos and Han Xin seized the opportunity to launch a counterattack and scored a victory. Chen Yu was killed in action while Zhao Xie and Li Zuoche were captured.
Battle of Wei River
In 204 BCE, after the
Kingdom of Yan surrendered to him, Liu Bang made Zhang Er the new King of
Zhao Zhao may refer to:
* Zhao (surname) (赵), a Chinese surname
** commonly spelled Chao in Taiwan or up until the early 20th century in other regions
** Chiu, from the Cantonese pronunciation
** Cho (Korean surname), represent the Hanja 趙 (Chine ...
. Xiang Yu constantly sent his armies to attack the Kingdom of Zhao, but Han Xin and Zhang Er managed to hold their ground. Xiang Yu then turned his attention towards
Xingyang, where Liu Bang was stationed. Liu Bang was forced to retreat to
Chenggao
Chenggao is an ancient city in present-day Sishui, which is under the jurisdiction of Xingyang City in Henan Province, People's Republic of China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is ...
, but he eventually abandoned Chenggao and headed north of the
Yellow River
The Yellow River or Huang He (Chinese: , Mandarin: ''Huáng hé'' ) is the second-longest river in China, after the Yangtze River, and the sixth-longest river system in the world at the estimated length of . Originating in the Bayan Ha ...
to where Han Xin was. In a surprise move, Liu Bang seized control over the troops under Han Xin's command and ordered Han Xin to attack the
Kingdom of Qi.
Just as Han Xin was preparing to attack Qi, Liu Bang sent
Li Yiji
Li Yiji (268–204 BC)Note that Li Yiji's given name 食其 is pronounced "Yìjī" and not "Shíqí" in Mandarin. The Chinese character 食, when used in a person's name, is pronounced "Yì". The Chinese character 基 did not exist during the H ...
to persuade
Tian Guang, the King of Qi, to surrender. He did not inform Han Xin of this. Tian Guang decided to surrender so he ordered to withdraw from Lixia (; present-day
Jinan,
Shandong
Shandong ( , ; ; Chinese postal romanization, alternately romanized as Shantung) is a coastal Provinces of China, province of the China, People's Republic of China and is part of the East China region.
Shandong has played a major role in His ...
). However, as Han Xin did not know that Tian Guang had the intention of surrendering, he followed Kuai Tong's advice and launched an attack on Qi. Han Xin conquered Lixia and attacked the Qi capital,
Linzi. Tian Guang thought that Li Yiji had lied to him so he had Li Yiji boiled alive. Then, he retreated to
Gaomi and requested aid from Xiang Yu. In the meantime, Han Xin conquered Linzi and continued to pursue the retreating Qi forces to Gaomi.
Xiang Yu sent
Long Ju
Long Ju (died 204 BC) was a military general who served under the warlord Xiang Yu during the Chu–Han Contention.
Life
Long Ju was a childhood friend of Xiang Yu and they were said to be as close as brothers. When Xiang Liang (Xiang Yu's uncle ...
to lead 200,000 troops to help Tian Guang. Long Ju and Tian Guang lost to Han Xin in the first battle. Someone advised Long Ju to avoid engaging Han Xin directly and focus on strengthening their defences, while asking Tian Guang to rally support from the fallen Qi cities. In that case, Han Xin's army would eventually be deprived of supplies and be forced to surrender. However, Long Ju rejected the plan and insisted on attacking Han Xin. On the night before the battle, Han Xin sent his men to dam the Wei River (; in present-day
Weifang
Weifang () is a prefecture-level city in central Shandong province, People's Republic of China. The city borders Dongying to the northwest, Zibo to the west, Linyi to the southwest, Rizhao to the south, Qingdao to the east, and looks out to ...
,
Shandong
Shandong ( , ; ; Chinese postal romanization, alternately romanized as Shantung) is a coastal Provinces of China, province of the China, People's Republic of China and is part of the East China region.
Shandong has played a major role in His ...
) with sandbags.
The next morning, after a skirmish with Chu forces, Han Xin feigned defeat and retreated to lure the enemy to follow him. When about a quarter of the Chu army had crossed the river, Han Xin signalled to his men to open the dam. Many Chu soldiers drowned and Long Ju was isolated with only a fraction of his forces. Taking advantage of the situation, Han Xin launched a counterattack. Long Ju was killed in action and the rest of the Chu army disintegrated as Han Xin continued pressing the attack. Tian Guang fled. Han Xin pursued the retreating enemy forces to Chengyang (; around present-day
Ju County
Ju County or Juxian () is a county of Rizhao City, in the south of Shandong Province, People's Republic of China. As of the end of 2021, the total registered population of Ju County was 1.167 million. It covers an area of .
The Fulaishan Scenic ...
,
Shandong
Shandong ( , ; ; Chinese postal romanization, alternately romanized as Shantung) is a coastal Provinces of China, province of the China, People's Republic of China and is part of the East China region.
Shandong has played a major role in His ...
).
After his victory, Han Xin swiftly took control of the Qi territories and then sent a messenger to Liu Bang, requesting that Liu Bang make him the new King of Qi. At the time, Liu Bang was under attack by Xiang Yu in
Xingyang and was eagerly awaiting reinforcements from Han Xin. He was furious when he received Han Xin's request. However, he eventually acted on the advice of
Zhang Liang Zhang Liang is the romanization of common names like 張良, 張亮 and 張梁.
張良
* Zhang Liang (Western Han) (died 189 BC), early Han dynasty strategist
** Zhang Liang, an animation character from the animated TV series ''The Legend of Qin'' ...
and
Chen Ping, and reluctantly approved Han Xin's request. At the same time, Xiang Yu felt worried after losing Long Ju, so he sent Wu She to attempt to persuade Han Xin to rebel against Liu Bang and declare himself king. However, despite Kuai Tong's urging, Han Xin refused to betray Liu Bang. Han Xin later organised an army to move southward and attack Xiang Yu.
Battle of Chenggao and the Treaty of Hong Canal
On the southern front, Liu Bang's forces started building supply routes from
Xingyang to Aocang (; northwest of Xingyang,
Henan
Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is a ...
). In 204 BCE, after sustaining losses from Chu attacks on the routes, the Han army ran short of supplies. Liu Bang negotiated for peace with Xiang Yu and agreed to cede the lands east of Xingyang to Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu wanted to accept Liu Bang's offer, but
Fan Zeng
Fan Zeng (277–204 BC) was an adviser to the warlord Xiang Yu, who fought for supremacy with Liu Bang (Emperor Gao), the founder of the Han dynasty, during the Chu–Han Contention (206–202 BC).
Life
Fan Zeng was from Juchao (present-day Yaf ...
advised him to reject and use the opportunity to destroy Liu Bang. Xiang Yu changed his mind, pressed the attack on Xingyang and besieged Liu Bang's forces inside the city. Liu Bang heeded
Chen Ping's suggestion to bribe Xiang Yu's men with 40,000
catties of gold for them to spread rumours that Fan Zeng had the intention of betraying Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu fell for the ruse and dismissed Fan Zeng.
In late 204 BCE, while Xiang Yu was away suppressing the rebellion in the
Kingdom of Qi,
Li Yiji
Li Yiji (268–204 BC)Note that Li Yiji's given name 食其 is pronounced "Yìjī" and not "Shíqí" in Mandarin. The Chinese character 食, when used in a person's name, is pronounced "Yì". The Chinese character 基 did not exist during the H ...
had advised Liu Bang to use the opportunity to attack Xiang Yu. Han forces conquered
Chenggao
Chenggao is an ancient city in present-day Sishui, which is under the jurisdiction of Xingyang City in Henan Province, People's Republic of China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is ...
and defeated the Chu army led by Cao Jiu near the
Si River. Liu Bang's forces advanced further until they reached Guangwu (; present-day Guangwu Town, Xingyang, Henan). Chu forces led by
Zhongli Mo were trapped by the Han army at the east of Xingyang. Following Han Xin's victory in the
Battle of Wei River
The Battle of Wei River () was fought in November 204 BC between the Han and a combined force of Qi and Western Chu. The famous General Han Xin led the Han force, while the Chu were led by Long Ju () and the Qi by King Tian Guang (). The result e ...
, the Chu army's morale fell and it ran short of supplies months later. Xiang Yu had no choice but to request to make peace with Liu Bang and release Liu Bang's family members, who were held hostage by him. Xiang Yu and Liu Bang agreed to a ceasefire at the Treaty of Hong Canal, which divided China into east and west under the Chu and Han domains respectively.
End of the war
In 203 BCE, while Xiang Yu was retreating eastward, Liu Bang, acting on the advice of
Zhang Liang Zhang Liang is the romanization of common names like 張良, 張亮 and 張梁.
張良
* Zhang Liang (Western Han) (died 189 BC), early Han dynasty strategist
** Zhang Liang, an animation character from the animated TV series ''The Legend of Qin'' ...
and
Chen Ping, renounced the Treaty of Hong Canal and ordered an attack on Xiang Yu. He also requested assistance from
Han Xin
Han Xin (; 231/230–196 BC) was a Chinese military general and politician who served Liu Bang during the Chu–Han Contention and contributed greatly to the founding of the Han dynasty. Han Xin was named as one of the "Three Heroes of the e ...
and
Peng Yue to attack Xiang Yu simultaneously from three directions. However, as Han Xin and Peng Yue did not mobilise their troops, Liu Bang was defeated by Xiang Yu at Guling (; south of present-day
Taikang County,
Henan
Henan (; or ; ; alternatively Honan) is a landlocked province of China, in the central part of the country. Henan is often referred to as Zhongyuan or Zhongzhou (), which literally means "central plain" or "midland", although the name is a ...
). He retreated and reinforced his defences. At the same time, he sent messengers to meet Han Xin and Peng Yue again, promising them land and titles if they joined him in attacking Xiang Yu.
Battle of Gaixia
Three months later, in 202 BCE, Liu Bang, Han Xin and Peng Yue attacked Xiang Yu from three directions. Xiang Yu's army ran low on supplies and were trapped in Gaixia (; southeast of present-day
Lingbi County,
Anhui
Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze Riv ...
). Han Xin ordered his troops to sing Chu folk songs to create a false impression that Chu had fallen to Han forces. The Chu army's morale plummeted and many soldiers deserted.
Xiang Yu attempted to break out the siege and was left with only 28 men when he reached the northern bank of the
Wu River (near present-day
He County,
Anhui
Anhui , (; formerly romanized as Anhwei) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the East China region. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze Riv ...
). He made a last stand and managed to slay hundreds of Han officers and soldiers before he was eventually overwhelmed and decided to commit suicide by slitting his throat.
Aftermath
After Xiang Yu's death, the rest of the Kingdom of Chu surrendered to the Kingdom of Han, and China was unified under Han rule. Liu Bang granted
Peng Yue,
Ying Bu and
Han Xin
Han Xin (; 231/230–196 BC) was a Chinese military general and politician who served Liu Bang during the Chu–Han Contention and contributed greatly to the founding of the Han dynasty. Han Xin was named as one of the "Three Heroes of the e ...
the titles of
King of Liang,
King of Huainan and
King of Chu respectively. Months later, at the urging of his followers and vassals, Liu Bang declared himself
emperor
An emperor (from la, imperator, via fro, empereor) is a monarch, and usually the sovereign ruler of an empire or another type of imperial realm. Empress, the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife ( empress consort), mother ( ...
and established the
Han dynasty
The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...
as the ruling dynasty in China. The imperial capital was at
Luoyang
Luoyang is a city located in the confluence area of Luo River and Yellow River in the west of Henan province. Governed as a prefecture-level city, it borders the provincial capital of Zhengzhou to the east, Pingdingshan to the southeast, Nanyan ...
but later moved to
Chang'an
Chang'an (; ) is the traditional name of Xi'an. The site had been settled since Neolithic times, during which the Yangshao culture was established in Banpo, in the city's suburbs. Furthermore, in the northern vicinity of modern Xi'an, Qin ...
(present-day
Xi'an,
Shaanxi
Shaanxi (alternatively Shensi, see § Name) is a landlocked province of China. Officially part of Northwest China, it borders the province-level divisions of Shanxi (NE, E), Henan (E), Hubei (SE), Chongqing (S), Sichuan (SW), Gansu (W), N ...
). Liu Bang made his wife
Lü Zhi empress and his eldest son
Liu Ying crown prince.
Although Liu Bang initially handsomely rewarded subjects who helped him become emperor, he gradually became suspicious of them and started to doubt their loyalties. Han Xin was demoted from King of Chu to Marquis of Huaiyin in late 202 BCE, and was subsequently arrested and executed by Empress Lü in 196 BCE for allegedly plotting a rebellion with
Chen Xi. In the same year, Liu Bang believed rumours that Peng Yue was also involved in the plot, so he demoted Peng Yue to the status of a commoner. Peng Yue and his family members were subsequently executed by Empress Lü.
Cultural references
* In ''
xiangqi
''Xiangqi'' (; ), also called Chinese chess or elephant chess, is a strategy board game for two players. It is the most popular board game in China. ''Xiangqi'' is in the same family of games as '' shogi'', '' janggi'', Western chess, '' ...
'' (Chinese chess), the middle section of the board that separates the players' sides is called the "Chu river and Han border" (). The red and black sides represent Han and Chu respectively.
* The
Beijing opera
Peking opera, or Beijing opera (), is the most dominant form of Chinese opera, which combines music, vocal performance, mime, dance and acrobatics. It arose in Beijing in the mid-Qing dynasty (1644–1912) and became fully developed and recognize ...
''
The Hegemon-King Bids His Concubine Farewell
''The Hegemon-King Bids His Lady Farewell''William Dolby, ''Eight Chinese Plays from the Thirteenth Century to the Present'' (London: P. Elek; New York: Columbia University Press, 1978). (), also known as ''Farewell My Concubine'', is a tradition ...
'' depicts the events of Xiang Yu's defeat at the
Battle of Gaixia and his romance with
Consort Yu.
* Two well known music pieces for the ''
pipa'' depict the
Battle of Gaixia from the Han and Chu perspectives respectively – ''Shi Mian Mai Fu'' (; ''
Ambush from Ten Sides'') and ''Ba Wang Xie Jia'' (; ''The Hegemon-King Takes Off His Armour'').
* Some ''
chengyu
''Chengyu'' () are a type of traditional Chinese idiomatic expression, most of which consist of four characters. ''Chengyu'' were widely used in Classical Chinese and are still common in vernacular Chinese writing and in the spoken language ...
'' (Chinese idioms) and proverbs originated from the events of the Chu–Han contention, such as
** "Breaking cauldrons and sinking boats" (), used to indicate one's determination to fight to the end, similar to
burning one's boat and
crossing the Rubicon
The phrase "crossing the Rubicon" is an idiom that means "passing a point of no return". Its meaning comes from allusion to the crossing of the river Rubicon by Julius Caesar in early January 49 BC. The exact date is unknown. Scholars u ...
. It originated from Xiang Yu's orders during the
Battle of Julu when Chu forces launched a fierce attack on Qin forces.
**
Feast at Swan Goose Gate (), used figuratively to refer to an ostensibly joyous occasion which is actually a dangerous trap. It originated from an incident in 206 BCE when Xiang Yu invited Liu Bang to attend a feast while secretly planning to assassinate Liu Bang during the feast. The saying "
Xiang Zhuang performs a sword dance with his attention directed towards the Duke of Pei" () also originated from this event. It is used figuratively to refer to a person's action being a veiled attack on another person.
** "Pretending to repair the
gallery roads while secretly passing through Chencang" (), used to refer to disguising one's action with a more obvious action. It originated from
Han Xin
Han Xin (; 231/230–196 BC) was a Chinese military general and politician who served Liu Bang during the Chu–Han Contention and contributed greatly to the founding of the Han dynasty. Han Xin was named as one of the "Three Heroes of the e ...
's strategy to attack the
Three Qins.
** "Fighting a battle with one's back facing a river" (), used to indicate one's determination to fight to the death. It originated from the
Battle of Jingxing between Han and Zhao forces.
** "Ambush on ten sides" (), used to refer to a situation in which one is under siege. It originated from Han Xin's strategy to trap Xiang Yu during the
Battle of Gaixia.
** "Surrounded by Chu songs" (), used to refer to one being surrounded by enemies on all sides. It originated from the
Battle of Gaixia when the Han soldiers sang Chu folk songs to dampen the fighting spirit of the besieged Chu forces.
Film
* ''
The Great Conqueror's Concubine'' is a 1994 Hong Kong film directed by Wei Handao and Stephen Shin.
Zhang Fengyi and
Ray Lui
Ray Lui Leung-wai ( vi, Lữ Lương Vỹ, born 22 December 1956) is a Hong Kong actor. Born in Chợ Lớn, Saigon, Vietnam, he traces his ancestry to Lianjiang, Guangdong. He is best known for his role as "Ting Lik" in the 1980 Hong Kong te ...
starred as Liu Bang and Xiang Yu respectively.
* ''
White Vengeance'' is a 2011 Chinese film directed by
Daniel Lee.
Leon Lai
Leon Lai Ming SBS BBS MH (born 11 December 1966), is a Hong Kong actor, film director, businessman and Cantopop singer. He is one of the "Four Heavenly Kings" of Hong Kong pop music. He uses his Chinese name "Li Ming" or "Lai Ming", whi ...
and
Feng Shaofeng starred as Liu Bang and Xiang Yu respectively.
* ''
The Last Supper
Image:The Last Supper - Leonardo Da Vinci - High Resolution 32x16.jpg, 400px, alt=''The Last Supper'' by Leonardo da Vinci - Clickable Image, Depictions of the Last Supper in Christian art have been undertaken by artistic masters for centuries, ...
'' is a 2012 Chinese film directed by
Lu Chuan.
Liu Ye and
Daniel Wu played Liu Bang and Xiang Yu respectively.
Television
* ''
The Battlefield'' is a 1985 Hong Kong television series produced by
TVB.
Lawrence Ng
Lawrence Ng Kai-wah (, ; born 19 May 1964) is a popular TV actor in Hong Kong. His more famous works include the television series '' Healing Hands'' and the films '' Fate Twisters'' and ''Sex and Zen''.
Ng's older brother is former Charlie ...
and
Shek Sau starred as Liu Bang and Xiang Yu respectively.
* ''
The Story of Han Dynasty
''The'' () is a grammatical article in English, denoting persons or things already mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite article in English. ''The'' is the ...
'' is a 2003 Chinese television series.
Hu Jun and Xiao Rongsheng starred as Xiang Yu and Liu Bang respectively.
''Da Han Feng'' on Sina
/ref>
* ''The Conqueror's Story
''The Conqueror's Story'' is a Hong Kong television series based on the events in the Chu–Han Contention, an interregnum between the fall of the Qin dynasty and the founding of the Han dynasty in Chinese history. It was first broadcast in 2004 ...
'' is a 2004 Hong Kong television series produced by TVB. Adam Cheng
Adam Cheng Siu-chow (born 24 February 1947) is a Hong Kong TVB actor and Cantopop singer.
Career
Cheng started his career in the 1970s, where he gained a reputation for playing the lead roles in TVB ''Wuxia'' drama series based on the works ...
and Kwong Wah starred as Liu Bang and Xiang Yu respectively.
* In the tenth episode of '' Code Geass'', the protagonist refers to the Battle of Wei River as inspiration for triggering a landslide during a battle.
* '' The Myth'' is a 2010 Chinese television series adapted from the 2005 film of the same title. A present-day photographer travels back in time and meets Liu Bang and Xiang Yu and becomes sworn brothers with them.
* ''King's War
''King's War'', also known as ''Legend of Chu and Han'', is a Chinese television series based on the events in the Chu–Han Contention, an interregnum between the fall of the Qin dynasty and the founding of the Han dynasty. It started airing o ...
'' is a 2012 Chinese television series directed by Gao Xixi
Gao Xixi (; born June 16, 1962) is a Chinese television director and producer, famous for directing a number of commercially successful Chinese television series.
Selected filmography As director
Gao Xixi has directed over 50 films and TV series ...
. Chen Daoming
Chen Daoming (born 26 April 1955) is a Chinese actor who has starred in various genres of film and television series.
Career
Chen graduated from the Central Academy of Drama. His first notable role was "Puyi" (the last emperor of China) in the ...
and Peter Ho
Peter Ho (, born September 13, 1975) is an American-Hong Kong- Taiwanese singer, actor and model based in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Since his debut in 1998, he has released seven albums and has starred in over 25 films and television series, most no ...
starred as Liu Bang and Xiang Yu respectively.
* '' Chu Han Zhengxiong'' is a 2012 Chinese television series directed by Chen Jialin. Anthony Wong and Ren Chengwei played Liu Bang and Xiang Yu respectively.
* ''Beauties of the Emperor'' is a 2012 Chinese television series produced by Yu Zheng. It romanticises the life stories of Liu Bang and Xiang Yu (played by Luo Jin and Ming Dow respectively), with the focus on Liu Bang's wife Lü Zhi (played by Joe Chen), who loves and desires both of the two men.
* ''History of a Salaryman
''History of a Salaryman'' (; lit. "Salaryman Cho Han Ji") is a 2012 South Korean television series that aired on SBS from January 2 to March 31, 2012 on Mondays and Tuesdays at 21:55 for 22 episodes. Starring Lee Beom-soo, Jung Ryeo-won, Jung ...
'' is a 2012 South Korean television series that aired on SBS. The 22-episode series, which satirises key historical figures of the Chu–Han Contention, is about an ordinary salaryman who gets involved in corporate espionage between rival pharmaceutical companies.
Video games
* '' Rise of the Phoenix'' is a 1993 strategy video game produced by Japan
Japan ( ja, 日本, or , and formally , ''Nihonkoku'') is an island country in East Asia. It is situated in the northwest Pacific Ocean, and is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan, while extending from the Sea of Okhotsk in the n ...
's Koei
Koei Co., Ltd. was a Japanese video game publisher, developer, and distributor founded in 1978. The company is known for its ''Dynasty Warriors'' games based on the novel ''Romance of the Three Kingdoms'', as well as simulation games based on p ...
. It was first released on SNES
The Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES), commonly shortened to Super NES or Super Nintendo, is a 16-bit home video game console developed by Nintendo that was released in 1990 in Japan and South Korea, 1991 in North America, 1992 in Eu ...
in 1994.
* ''Chǔ Hàn Zhēngbà: The War Between Chu & Han'' () is a 1997 unlicensed turn-based strategy game for Famicom, developed and published by China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...
's Fuzhou Waixing Computer Science & Technology (simply known as Waixing).
* '' Prince of Qin'' is a 2002 action RPG
An action role-playing game (often abbreviated action RPG or ARPG) is a subgenre of video games that combines core elements from both the action game and role-playing genre.
Definition
The games emphasize real-time combat where the player h ...
. The protagonist is the former Qin crown prince Fusu. He witnesses how the Qin dynasty
The Qin dynasty ( ; zh, c=秦朝, p=Qín cháo, w=), or Ch'in dynasty in Wade–Giles romanization ( zh, c=, p=, w=Ch'in ch'ao), was the first dynasty of Imperial China. Named for its heartland in Qin state (modern Gansu and Shaanxi), ...
becomes corrupted by Qin Er Shi and Zhao Gao, and decides to help Liu Bang and Xiang Yu overthrow the dynasty.
See also
* Timeline of the Chu–Han Contention
References
* Sima Qian
Sima Qian (; ; ) was a Chinese historian of the early Han dynasty (206AD220). He is considered the father of Chinese historiography for his ''Records of the Grand Historian'', a general history of China covering more than two thousand years be ...
. ''Records of the Grand Historian
''Records of the Grand Historian'', also known by its Chinese name ''Shiji'', is a monumental history of China that is the first of China's 24 dynastic histories. The ''Records'' was written in the early 1st century by the ancient Chinese his ...
''.
* Ban Gu
Ban Gu (AD32–92) was a Chinese historian, politician, and poet best known for his part in compiling the '' Book of Han'', the second of China's 24 dynastic histories. He also wrote a number of '' fu'', a major literary form, part prose ...
et al. '' Book of Han''.
* Sima Guang. ''Zizhi Tongjian
''Zizhi Tongjian'' () is a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography, published in 1084 AD during the Northern Song dynasty in the form of a chronicle recording Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynast ...
''.
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chu-Han Contention
200s BC conflicts
Emperor Gaozu of Han
Wars of succession involving the states and peoples of Asia