The Chu Silk Manuscript (), also known as the Chu Silk Manuscript from Zidanku in Changsha (), is a Chinese astrological and astronomical text. It was discovered in a (c. 300 BCE)

Warring States period The Warring States period () was an era in History of China#Ancient China, ancient Chinese history characterized by warfare, as well as bureaucratic and military reforms and consolidation. It followed the Spring and Autumn period and concluded ...

tomb from the southern Chinese state of Chu.

History

The

provenance Provenance (from the French ''provenir'', 'to come from/forth') is the chronology of the ownership, custody or location of a historical object. The term was originally mostly used in relation to works of art but is now used in similar senses i ...

of the Chu Silk Manuscript is uncertain, like many illicit antiquities. Sometime between 1934 and 1942,

grave robbers Grave robbery, tomb robbing, or tomb raiding is the act of uncovering a grave, tomb or crypt to steal commodities. It is usually perpetrated to take and profit from valuable artefacts or personal property. A related act is body snatching, a term ...

discovered it in a tomb near Zidanku (literally "bullet storehouse"), east of

Changsha Changsha (; ; ; Changshanese pronunciation: (), Standard Mandarin pronunciation: ) is the capital and the largest city of Hunan Province of China. Changsha is the 17th most populous city in China with a population of over 10 million, and ...

Hunan Hunan (, ; ) is a landlocked province of the People's Republic of China, part of the South Central China region. Located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze watershed, it borders the province-level divisions of Hubei to the north, Jiangx ...

. Archaeologists later found the original tomb and dated it to around 300 BCE. In 1946, the art collector Cai Jixiang () owned the manuscript. John Hadley Cox then transported it to the United States. How John Hadley Cox acquired the manuscript from Cai Jixiang remains a controversy: Cai claimed that Cox had been asked to help scan the manuscript only; Cai's efforts to have the manuscript returned had persisted till the late 1970s but failed.文物专家解密长沙子弹库楚墓出土缯书被骗流散美国
," '' Rednet'', 12 March 2009 The philanthropist Arthur M. Sackler purchased the ancient manuscript in 1965, and it is preserved in the

Arthur M. Sackler Gallery The Arthur M. Sackler Gallery is an art museum of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., focusing on Asian art. The Sackler Gallery and the Freer Gallery of Art together form the National Museum of Asian Art in the United States. Th ...

in Washington, D.C. Papers related to the manuscript can be found at the

Freer Gallery of Art The Freer Gallery of Art is an art museum of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. focusing on Asian art. The Freer and the Arthur M. Sackler Gallery together form the National Museum of Asian Art in the United States. The Freer and S ...

and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery Archives. Recent excavations of Chu-period tombs have discovered historically comparable manuscripts written on fragile

bamboo slips Bamboo and wooden slips () were the main media for writing documents in China before the widespread introduction of paper during the first two centuries AD. (Silk was occasionally used, for example in the Chu Silk Manuscript, but was prohibiti ...

and

silk Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best-known silk is obtained from th ...

– the Chinese word ''zhubo'' (竹帛 literally "bamboo and silk") means "bamboo slips and silk (for writing); ancient books". The Chu Silk Manuscript was roughly contemporaneous with the (c. 305 BCE) Tsinghua Bamboo Slips and (c. 300 BCE)

Guodian Chu Slips The Guodian Chu Slips () were unearthed in 1993 in Tomb no. 1 of the Guodian tombs in Jingmen, Hubei Province and dated to the latter half of the Warring States period. The tomb is located in the Jishan District's tomb complex, near the Jingmen ...

, and it preceded the (168 BCE) Mawangdui Silk Texts. Its subject matter predates the (c. 168 BCE) Han Dynasty silk ''

Divination by Astrological and Meteorological Phenomena The ''Divination by Astrological and Meteorological Phenomena'' (), also known as ''Book of Silk'' is an ancient astronomy silk manuscript compiled by Chinese astronomers of the Western Han Dynasty (202 BC – 9 AD) and found in the Mawangd ...

''.

Content

The Chu Silk Manuscript is 47 cm long and 38 cm wide, with worn edges and folds. Exposure to light has made some portions dark and unreadable, but infrared photography helped to decipher some illegible portions. This silken document contains 926 ancient characters in three sections, each of which involves some aspect of the

lunisolar A lunisolar calendar is a calendar in many cultures, combining lunar calendars and solar calendars. The date of Lunisolar calendars therefore indicates both the Moon phase and the time of the solar year, that is the position of the Sun in the Ea ...

Chinese calendar The traditional Chinese calendar (also known as the Agricultural Calendar ��曆; 农历; ''Nónglì''; 'farming calendar' Former Calendar ��曆; 旧历; ''Jiùlì'' Traditional Calendar ��曆; 老历; ''Lǎolì'', is a lunisolar calendar ...

. Li and Cook (1999) call them the "Year (Inner Long Text)", "Seasons (Inner Short Text)", and "Months (Surrounding Text)". The Inner Long and Short Text are alternate blocks, respectively with thirteen lines of text upright and with eight lines inverted (cf. Greek

Boustrophedon Boustrophedon is a style of writing in which alternate lines of writing are reversed, with letters also written in reverse, mirror-style. This is in contrast to modern European languages, where lines always begin on the same side, usually the le ...

). Jao Tsung-I (Lawton 1991:178) proposes the former section is written right side up because it discusses the

creation myth A creation myth (or cosmogonic myth) is a symbolic narrative of how the world began and how people first came to inhabit it., "Creation myths are symbolic stories describing how the universe and its inhabitants came to be. Creation myths develo ...

s of the Chu people, and the latter is upside down because it describes events when heaven is in disarray. The Surrounding Text in the four margins pictures a color-symbolic tree in each corner plus twelve masked zoomorphic figures with short descriptions. Scholars associate the twelve pictures with the Chu gods for the months and the four trees with the mythic pillars holding up the heavens. The Inner Short Text describes Gong Gong knocking down one heavenly pillar and causing the earth to tilt. Although these twelve figures have no certain interpretation, Loewe (1978:105) reasons, "it seems likely that they may represent twelve guardian gods or holy spirits, severally invested with powers of action for each of the twelve months. Alternatively they may represent twelve shamans or intermediaries, wearing masks and capable of communicating with such deities." Li Xueqin (1987) identified these twelve gods with the ancient names for the months given in the ''

Erya The ''Erya'' or ''Erh-ya'' is the first surviving Chinese dictionary. Bernhard Karlgren ( 1931:49) concluded that "the major part of its glosses must reasonably date from the 3rd century BC." Title Chinese scholars interpret the first title cha ...

'' (8/15, Chu 陬, Ru 如, Bing 寎, ...). The manuscript's sides represent the four directions and seasons. In traditional Chinese terms, the Four Symbols are the Azure Dragon of the East (), Vermillion Bird of the South (), White Tiger of the West (), and Black Tortoise of the North (). Each direction is divided into seven sectors, constituting the Twenty-Eight Mansions () of the

lunar month In lunar calendars, a lunar month is the time between two successive syzygies of the same type: new moons or full moons. The precise definition varies, especially for the beginning of the month. Variations In Shona, Middle Eastern, and Eur ...

. The Chu Silk Manuscript concerns

Chinese astronomy Astronomy in China has a long history stretching from the Shang dynasty, being refined over a period of more than 3,000 years. The ancient Chinese people have identified stars from 1300 BCE, as Chinese star names later categorized in the tw ...

and

Chinese astrology Chinese astrology is based on the traditional astronomy and calendars. Chinese astrology came to flourish during the Han Dynasty (2nd century BC to 2nd century AD). Chinese astrology has a close relation with Chinese philosophy (theory of the ...

, describes the

s of

Fuxi Fuxi or Fu Hsi (伏羲 ~ 伏犧 ~ 伏戲) is a culture hero in Chinese legend and mythology, credited along with his sister and wife Nüwa with creating humanity and the invention of music, hunting, fishing, domestication, and cooking as well ...

and Nuwa, and reveals ancient religious perspectives and

cosmogony Cosmogony is any model concerning the origin of the cosmos or the universe. Overview Scientific theories In astronomy, cosmogony refers to the study of the origin of particular astrophysical objects or systems, and is most commonly used ...

. Li and Cook (1999:172) conclude that, "Generally, the writer of the manuscript was concerned that the calendar be used with proper respect and knowledge. Otherwise, the text threatens, cosmic collapse and evil catastrophic events would occur." Li and Cook identify the design with the ''shitu'' (式圖 "cosmic model diagram").

The Chu Silk Manuscript consists of both illustrations and texts; it is designed to resemble a divination board (''shi''; also sometimes called a diviner's board or cosmograph), which is itself a model of the cosmos. This type of instrument, of which several have been found in Han tombs, consists of a round board symbolizing heaven that can rotate on a pivot on top of a square board representing the earth. (1999:172)

This ''shi'' (式, literally "model; standard; form; pattern") or ''shipan'' () was the precursor for the '' luopan'' () or " feng shui compass".

Translations

Interpreting the Chu Silk Manuscript's brush-written

Chinese characters Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are known as ''kanji ...

is especially difficult. Some of these ancient

logogram In a written language, a logogram, logograph, or lexigraph is a written character that represents a word or morpheme. Chinese characters (pronounced '' hanzi'' in Mandarin, ''kanji'' in Japanese, ''hanja'' in Korean) are generally logograms, ...

s are illegible and some are missing in lacuna. Others are what Barnard (1981:181) calls "descendantless graphs" unidentified with standard characters, which "may reflect something of the Ch'u (written) "dialect" rather than more general characteristics of pre-Han character structures." Barnard (1973) provided the first English translation of the manuscript, followed by Li and Cook (1999). To illustrate the subject matter, the translated beginning of each section is quoted below. Note that the ellipsis " .. marks obliterated or untranslatable characters. "Year (Inner Long Text)" has three subsections; warning about unnatural events if the months are improperly calibrated, stressing the importance of a proper calendar for an auspicious year from the gods, and cautioning people to respectfully sacrifice to the gods. "Seasons (Inner Short Text)" also has three subsections; describing how the gods separated heaven and earth and determined the four seasons, Yandi and

Zhu Rong Rong Zhu ( ch: 茸主; born March 7, 2000) is a Chinese mixed martial artist who competed in the Lightweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship. Background Of Tibetan descent, as early as the age of 12, Rong began to practice Sanda. ...

supported the heavens with five pillars of different colors, and Gong Gong divided time into periods, days, months, and years. This "stepped" refers to ritual '' Yubu'' (禹步 "Steps of Yu", later known as '' bugang'' 步罡 "walking the guideline", Andersen 1989). Yu was the legendary founder of the

Xia dynasty The Xia dynasty () is the first dynasty in traditional Chinese historiography. According to tradition, the Xia dynasty was established by the legendary Yu the Great, after Shun, the last of the Five Emperors, gave the throne to him. In tradit ...

who controlled the Great Flood's waters and regulated the four seasons. "Months (Surrounding Text)" in the margins has twelve subsections that picture the monthly gods and list their calendrical rules.

Textual genre

Several

Chinese classics Chinese classic texts or canonical texts () or simply dianji (典籍) refers to the Chinese texts which originated before the imperial unification by the Qin dynasty in 221 BC, particularly the "Four Books and Five Classics" of the Neo-Confuci ...

are comparable with the Chu Silk Manuscript. For instance, Major (1999:125) says it "anticipates later ritual and astrological calendars, such as the "Yueling" ��令 "Monthly Commands"of the ''Lüshi chunqiu'', in emphasizing the importance of performing certain actions and refraining from others in each month of the year in order to ensure safety and good fortune for the community as a whole." In addition, Jao (1985, Lawton 1991:176) compares the manuscript with both the ''Tianguan shu'' (天官書 "Essay on Astronomy") in the ''

Records of the Grand Historian ''Records of the Grand Historian'', also known by its Chinese name ''Shiji'', is a monumental history of China that is the first of China's 24 dynastic histories. The ''Records'' was written in the early 1st century by the ancient Chinese his ...

'' and the bamboo ''Rishu'' (日書 "Almanacs") from the Chu burials at

Yunmeng Yunmeng County () is a county in eastern Hubei province, People's Republic of China. It is administered by Xiaogan City and is located just outside Xiaogan's urban area. History During the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history (770-476 B ...

and the Qin burials at Tianshui. Within traditional terms for Chinese schools of thought, Li Ling (1985, Lawton 1991:179) classifies the manuscript as the oldest example of ''shushu'' (數術 "numerals and skills"). "''Shushu'' not only includes astronomy and the calendrical and mathematical sciences, but also the various related areas in divination (based on deduction) and physiognomy (based on observation)." ''Shushu'' contrasted with ''fangji'' (方技 "prescriptions and techniques"), which included

Traditional Chinese medicine Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. It has been described as "fraught with pseudoscience", with the majority of its treatments having no logical mechanism of acti ...

, neidan, Dao yin, etc., and both specialties were associated with '' fangshi'' "diviners; magicians". "''Shushu'' is primarily related to the universal order (hence, the cosmos), while ''fangji'' is primarily related to the human order (hence, the human body)." Li concludes the Chu Silk Manuscript's cosmic model was based on ''liuren'' () or '' Da Liu Ren'' () calendrical astrology.

References

*Andersen, Poul. 1989
"The Practice of Bugang"
''Cahiers d'Extrême- Asie'' 5.5:15-53. *Barnard, Noel. 1958. "A Preliminary Study of the Ch'u Silk Manuscript – A New Reconstruction of the Text", ''Monumenta Serica'' 17:1-11. *Barnard, Noel. 1972. ''Studies on the Ch'u Silk Manuscript''. Australian National University ''Monographs on Far Eastern History'' 4. *Barnard, Noel. 1973. ''The Ch’u Silk Manuscript. Translation and Commentary''. Australian National University Press. *Barnard, Noel. 1981. "The nature of the Ch'in "Reform of the Script" as reflected in archaeological documents excavated under conditions of control," i
''Science in Traditional China: a Comparative Perspective''
ed. by Joseph Needham, The Chinese University Press, 181-214. *Cook, Constance A. and John S. Major, eds. 1999
''Defining Chu: Image and Reality in Ancient China''
Hawaii University Press. * Jao Tsung-I. 1985. ''Chu boshu'' 楚帛書. Zhonghua shuju. *Jao Tsung-I. 1987. "The Calligraphic Art of the Chu Silk Manuscript," ''Orientations''. 18.9:79-84. *Lawton, Thomas, ed. 1991. ''New Perspectives on Chu Culture during the Eastern Zhou Period''. Princeton University Press. * Li Ling. 1985. ''Changsha Zidanku Zhanguo Chu boshu yanjiu'' 長沙子彈庫戰國楚帛書研究. Zhonghua shuju. *Li Ling and Constance A. Cook. 1999. "Translation of the Chu Silk Manuscript," in Cook and Major, 171-176. * Li Xueqin. 1987. "Zai lun boshu shi'er shen 再論帛書十二神", ''Hunan kaogu jikan'' 湖南考古季刊 4:110-114. * Loewe, Michael. 1978. "Man and Beast: The Hybrid in Early Chinese Art and Literature", ''Numen'' 25.2:97-117. *Major, John S. 1999. "Characteristics of Late Chu Religion," in Cook and Major, 121-144.

External links

Chu Silk Manuscript

John Hadley Cox Archaeological Study collection
Smithsonian Institution Libraries
Translation and Commentary of the Ch'u Silk Manuscript
Noel Barnard

''

Time Time is the continued sequence of existence and event (philosophy), events that occurs in an apparently irreversible process, irreversible succession from the past, through the present, into the future. It is a component quantity of various me ...