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Chinese dictionaries date back over two millennia to the
Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...
, which is a significantly longer lexicographical history than any other language. There are hundreds of dictionaries for the
Chinese language Chinese (, especially when referring to written Chinese) is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in Greater China. About 1.3 billion people (or approximately 16% of the ...
, and this article discusses some of the most important.


Terminology

The general term ''císhū'' (, "lexicographic books") semantically encompasses "dictionary; lexicon; encyclopedia; glossary". The
Chinese language Chinese (, especially when referring to written Chinese) is a group of languages spoken natively by the ethnic Han Chinese majority and many minority ethnic groups in Greater China. About 1.3 billion people (or approximately 16% of the ...
has two words for dictionary: ''zidian'' (character/logograph dictionary) for written forms, that is,
Chinese character Chinese characters () are logograms developed for the writing of Chinese. In addition, they have been adapted to write other East Asian languages, and remain a key component of the Japanese writing system where they are known as ''kanji' ...
s, and ''cidian'' (word/phrase dictionary), for spoken forms. For character dictionaries, ''zidian'' () combines ''zi'' "character, graph; letter, script, writing; word") and ''dian'' "dictionary, encyclopedia; standard, rule; statute, canon; classical allusion"). For word dictionaries, ''cidian'' is interchangeably written /; ''cídiǎn''; ''tzʻŭ²-tien³''; "word dictionary") or (/; ''cídiǎn''; ''tzʻŭ²-tien³''; "word dictionary"); using ''cí'' (; "word, speech; phrase, expression; diction, phraseology; statement; a kind of poetic prose; depart; decline; resign"), and its graphic variant ''cí'' (; "word, term; expression, phrase; speech, statement; part of speech; a kind of tonal poetry"). ''Zidian'' is a much older and more common word than ''cidian'', and Yang notes ''zidian'' is often "used for both 'character dictionary' and 'word dictionary'.


Traditional Chinese lexicography

The precursors of Chinese dictionaries are primers designed for students of Chinese characters. The earliest of them only survive in fragments or quotations within Chinese classic texts. For example, the '' Shizhoupian'' () was compiled by one or more historians in the court of King Xuan of Zhou (r. 827 BCE – 782 BCE), and was the source of the zhòuwén variant forms listed in the Han dynasty Shuowen Jiezi dictionary. The '' Cangjiepian'' ( "Chapters of
Cang Jie Cangjie () is a legendary ancient Chinese figure said to have been an official historian of the Yellow Emperor and the inventor of Chinese characters. Legend has it that he had four eyes, and that when he invented the characters, the deities a ...
"), named after the legendary inventor of writing, was edited by Li Si, and helped to standardize the Small seal script during the
Qin dynasty The Qin dynasty ( ; zh, c=秦朝, p=Qín cháo, w=), or Ch'in dynasty in Wade–Giles romanization ( zh, c=, p=, w=Ch'in ch'ao), was the first dynasty of Imperial China. Named for its heartland in Qin state (modern Gansu and Shaanxi), ...
. The collation or lexicographical ordering of a dictionary generally depends upon its writing system. For a language written in an
alphabet An alphabet is a standardized set of basic written graphemes (called letters) that represent the phonemes of certain spoken languages. Not all writing systems represent language in this way; in a syllabary, each character represents a syllab ...
or syllabary, dictionaries are usually ordered alphabetically.
Samuel Johnson Samuel Johnson (18 September 1709  – 13 December 1784), often called Dr Johnson, was an English writer who made lasting contributions as a poet, playwright, essayist, moralist, critic, biographer, editor and lexicographer. The ''Oxford ...
defined ''dictionary'' as "a book containing the words of any language in alphabetical order, with explanations of their meaning" in his dictionary. But Johnson's definition cannot be applied to the Chinese dictionaries, as Chinese is written in
character Character or Characters may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Literature * ''Character'' (novel), a 1936 Dutch novel by Ferdinand Bordewijk * ''Characters'' (Theophrastus), a classical Greek set of character sketches attributed to The ...
s or
logograph In a written language, a logogram, logograph, or lexigraph is a written character that represents a word or morpheme. Chinese characters (pronounced ''hanzi'' in Mandarin, '' kanji'' in Japanese, '' hanja'' in Korean) are generally logograms, ...
, not alphabets. To Johnson, not having an alphabet is not to the Chinese's credit, as in 1778, when
James Boswell James Boswell, 9th Laird of Auchinleck (; 29 October 1740 ( N.S.) – 19 May 1795), was a Scottish biographer, diarist, and lawyer, born in Edinburgh. He is best known for his biography of his friend and older contemporary the English writer ...
asked about the Chinese characters, he replied "Sir, they have not an alphabet. They have not been able to form what all other nations have formed". Nevertheless, the Chinese made their dictionaries, and developed three original systems for lexicographical ordering: semantic categories, graphic components, and pronunciations.


Semantically organized dictionaries

The first system of dictionary organization is by semantic categories. The circa 3rd-century BCE '' Erya'' ( "Approaching Correctness") is the oldest extant Chinese dictionary, and scholarship reveals that it is a pre-Qin compilation of glosses to classical texts. It contains lists of synonyms arranged into 19 semantic categories (e.g., "Explaining Plants", "Explaining Trees"). The
Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...
dictionary '' Xiao Erya'' ( "Little Erya") reduces these 19 to 13 chapters. The early 3rd century CE ''
Guangya The (c. 230) ''Guangya'' (; "Expanded '' ra''") was an early 3rd-century CE Chinese dictionary, edited by Zhang Yi (張揖) during the Three Kingdoms period. It was later called the ''Boya'' (博雅; ''Bóyǎ''; ''Po-ya''; "Broadened ra") owing ...
'' ( "Expanded Erya"), from the Northern Wei dynasty, followed the ''Erya''s original 19 chapters. The circa 1080 CE '' Piya'' ( "Increased Erya"), from the
Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the res ...
, has 8 semantically based chapters of names for plants and animals. For a dictionary user wanting to look up a character, this arbitrary semantic system is inefficient unless one already knows, or can guess, the meaning. Two other Han dynasty lexicons are loosely organized by semantics. The 1st century CE '' Fangyan'' ( "Regional Speech") is the world's oldest known dialectal dictionary. The circa 200 CE '' Shiming'' ( "Explaining Names") employs paranomastic glosses to define words.


Graphically organized dictionaries

The second system of dictionary organization is by recurring graphic components or
radicals Radical may refer to: Politics and ideology Politics *Radical politics, the political intent of fundamental societal change *Radicalism (historical), the Radical Movement that began in late 18th century Britain and spread to continental Europe and ...
. The famous 100–121 CE '' Shuowen Jiezi'' ( "Explaining Simple and Analyzing Compound Characters") arranged characters through a system of 540 ''bushou'' ( "section header") radicals. The 543 CE '' Yupian'' ( "Jade Chapters"), from the Liang dynasty, rearranged them into 542. The 1615 CE ''
Zihui The 1615 ''Zìhuì'' is a Chinese dictionary edited by the Ming Dynasty scholar Mei Yingzuo ( 梅膺祚). It is renowned for introducing two lexicographical innovations that continue to be used in the present day: the 214-radical system for i ...
'' ( "Character Glossary"), edited by Mei Yingzuo () during the
Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty (), officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming dynasty was the last ort ...
, simplified the 540 ''Shuowen Jiezi'' radicals to 214. It also originated the "radical-stroke" scheme of ordering characters on the number of residual graphic strokes besides the radical. The 1627 '' Zhengzitong'' ( "Correct Character Mastery") also used 214. The 1716 CE '' Kangxi Zidian'' ( "Kangxi Dictionary"), compiled under the
Kangxi Emperor The Kangxi Emperor (4 May 1654– 20 December 1722), also known by his temple name Emperor Shengzu of Qing, born Xuanye, was the third emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1661 to ...
of the
Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing,, was a Manchu-led imperial dynasty of China and the last orthodox dynasty in Chinese history. It emerged from the Later Jin dynasty founded by the Jianzhou Jurchens, a Tungusic-speak ...
, became the standard dictionary for Chinese characters, and popularized the system of 214 radicals. As most Chinese characters are semantic-phonetic ones (), the radical method is usually effective, thus it continues to be widely used in the present day. However, sometimes the radical of a character is not obvious. To compensate this, a "Chart of Characters that Are Difficult to Look up" (), arranged by the number of strokes of the characters, is usually provided.


Phonetically organized dictionaries

The third system of lexicographical ordering is by character pronunciation. This type of dictionary collates its entries by
syllable rime A syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds typically made up of a syllable nucleus (most often a vowel) with optional initial and final margins (typically, consonants). Syllables are often considered the phonological " ...
and tones, and comprises the so-called " rime dictionary". The first surviving rime dictionary is the 601 CE '' Qieyun'' ( "Cutting pellingRimes") from the
Sui dynasty The Sui dynasty (, ) was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China that lasted from 581 to 618. The Sui unified the Northern and Southern dynasties, thus ending the long period of division following the fall of the Western Jin dynasty, and la ...
; it became the standard of pronunciation for
Middle Chinese Middle Chinese (formerly known as Ancient Chinese) or the Qieyun system (QYS) is the historical variety of Chinese recorded in the '' Qieyun'', a rime dictionary first published in 601 and followed by several revised and expanded editions. The ...
. During the Song dynasty, it was expanded into the 1011 CE '' Guangyun'' ( "Expanded Rimes") and the 1037 CE ''
Jiyun The ''Jiyun'' (''Chi-yun''; ) is a Chinese rime dictionary published in 1037 during the Song Dynasty. The chief editor Ding Du (丁度) and others expanded and revised the '' Guangyun''. It is possible, according to Teng and Biggerstaff (1971:14 ...
'' ( "Collected Rimes"). The clear problem with these old phonetically arranged dictionary is that the would-be user needs to have the knowledge of rime. Thus, dictionaries collated this way can only serve the literati. A great number of modern dictionaries published today arrange their entries by
pinyin Hanyu Pinyin (), often shortened to just pinyin, is the official romanization system for Standard Mandarin Chinese in China, and to some extent, in Singapore and Malaysia. It is often used to teach Mandarin, normally written in Chinese fo ...
or other methods of romanisation, together with a radicals index. Some of these pinyin dictionaries also contain indices of the characters arranged by number and order of strokes, by the four corner encoding () or by the cangjie encoding (). Some dictionaries employ more than one of these three methods of collation. For example, the '' Longkan Shoujian'' () of the
Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
uses radicals, which are grouped by tone. The characters under each radical are also grouped by tone.


Functional classifications

Besides categorizing ancient Chinese dictionaries by their methods of collation, they can also be classified by their functions. In the traditional bibliographic divisions of the imperial collection '' Siku Quanshu'', dictionaries were classified as belonging to ''xiǎoxué'' (, lit. "minor learning", the premodern equivalent of "
linguistics Linguistics is the scientific study of human language. It is called a scientific study because it entails a comprehensive, systematic, objective, and precise analysis of all aspects of language, particularly its nature and structure. Ling ...
"), which was contrasted with ''dàxué'' (, "major learning", i.e., learning that had moral implications). ''Xiaoxue'' was divided into texts dealing with ''xùngǔ'' (, "exegesis" similar to "
philology Philology () is the study of language in oral and written historical sources; it is the intersection of textual criticism, literary criticism, history, and linguistics (with especially strong ties to etymology). Philology is also defined as ...
"), ''wénzì'' (, "script", analogous to " grammatology"), and ''yīnyùn'' (, "sounds and rhymes," comparable to "
phonology Phonology is the branch of linguistics that studies how languages or dialects systematically organize their sounds or, for sign languages, their constituent parts of signs. The term can also refer specifically to the sound or sign system of a ...
"). The ''Xungu'' type, sometimes called ''yǎshū'' (, "word book"), comprises ''Erya'' and its descendants. These exegetical dictionaries focus on explaining meanings of words as found in the Chinese classics. The ''Wenzi'' dictionaries, called ''zìshū'' ( "character book"), comprise ''Shuowen Jiezi'', ''Yupian'', ''Zihui'', ''Zhengzitong'', and ''Kangxi Zidian''. This type of dictionary, which focuses on the shape and structure of the characters, subsumes both "
orthography An orthography is a set of conventions for writing a language, including norms of spelling, hyphenation, capitalization, word breaks, emphasis, and punctuation. Most transnational languages in the modern period have a writing system, and ...
dictionaries", such as the '' Ganlu Zishu'' () of the Tang dynasty, and "
script Script may refer to: Writing systems * Script, a distinctive writing system, based on a repertoire of specific elements or symbols, or that repertoire * Script (styles of handwriting) ** Script typeface, a typeface with characteristics of ha ...
dictionaries", such as the ''Liyun'' () of the Song dynasty. Although these dictionaries center upon the graphic properties of Chinese characters, they do not necessarily collate characters by radical. For instance, ''Liyun'' is a clerical script dictionary collated by tone and rime. The ''Yinyun'' type, called ''yùnshū'' ( "rime book"), focuses on the pronunciations of characters. These dictionaries are always collated by rimes. While the above traditional pre-20th-century Chinese dictionaries focused upon the meanings and pronunciations of words in classical texts, they practically ignored the spoken language and vernacular literature.


Modern Chinese lexicography

The ''Kangxi Zidian'' served as the standard Chinese dictionary for generations, is still published and is now online. Contemporary lexicography is divisible between bilingual and monolingual Chinese dictionaries.


Chinese–English dictionaries

The foreigners who entered China in late Ming and Qing dynasties needed dictionaries for different purposes than native speakers. Wanting to learn Chinese, they compiled the first grammar books and bilingual dictionaries. Westerners adapted the Latin alphabet to represent Chinese pronunciation, and arranged their dictionaries accordingly. Two
Bible The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus ...
translators edited early Chinese dictionaries. The Scottish missionary Robert Morrison wrote A Dictionary of the Chinese Language (1815–1823). The British missionary Walter Henry Medhurst wrote a Hokkien ( Min Nan) dialect dictionary in 1832 and the '' Chinese and English Dictionary'' in 1842. Both were flawed in their representation of pronunciations, such as aspirated stops. In 1874 the American philologist and diplomat
Samuel Wells Williams Samuel Wells Williams (22 September 1812 – 16 February 1884) was a linguist, official, missionary and Sinologist from the United States in the early 19th century. Early life Williams was born in Utica, New York, son of William Williams (1 ...
applied the method of dialect comparison in his dictionary, ''
A Syllabic Dictionary of the Chinese Language ''A Syllabic Dictionary of the Chinese Language: Arranged According to the Wu-Fang Yuen Yin, with the Pronunciation of the Characters as Heard in Peking, Canton, Amoy, and Shanghai'' or the ''Hàn-Yīng yùnfǔ 漢英韻府'', compiled by the Amer ...
'', which refined distinctions in articulation and gave variant regional pronunciations in addition to standard Peking pronunciation. The British consular officer and linguist
Herbert Giles Herbert Allen Giles (, 8 December 184513 February 1935) was a British diplomat and sinologist who was the professor of Chinese at the University of Cambridge for 35 years. Giles was educated at Charterhouse School before becoming a British ...
criticized Williams as "the lexicographer not for the future but of the past", and took nearly twenty years to compile his '' A Chinese-English Dictionary'' (1892, 1912), one that Norman calls "the first truly adequate Chinese–English dictionary". It contained 13,848 characters and numerous compound expressions, with pronunciation based upon Beijing Mandarin, which it compared with nine southern dialects such as
Cantonese Cantonese ( zh, t=廣東話, s=广东话, first=t, cy=Gwóngdūng wá) is a language within the Chinese (Sinitic) branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages originating from the city of Guangzhou (historically known as Canton) and its surrounding a ...
,
Hakka The Hakka (), sometimes also referred to as Hakka Han, or Hakka Chinese, or Hakkas are a Han Chinese subgroup whose ancestral homes are chiefly in the Hakka-speaking provincial areas of Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan, Zhej ...
, and Fuzhou dialect. It has been called "still interesting as a repository of late Qing documentary Chinese, although there is little or no indication of the citations, mainly from the Kangxi zidian." Giles modified the Chinese romanization system of Thomas Francis Wade to create the Wade-Giles system, which was standard in English speaking countries until 1979 when pinyin was adopted. The Giles dictionary was replaced by the 1931 dictionary of the Australian missionary Robert Henry Mathews. '' Mathews' Chinese-English Dictionary'', which was popular for decades, was based on Giles and partially updated by Y.R. Chao in 1943 and reprinted in 1960. Trained in American
structural linguistics Structural linguistics, or structuralism, in linguistics, denotes schools or theories in which language is conceived as a self-contained, self-regulating semiotic system whose elements are defined by their relationship to other elements within t ...
,
Yuen Ren Chao Yuen Ren Chao (; 3 November 1892 – 25 February 1982), also known as Zhao Yuanren, was a Chinese-American linguist, educator, scholar, poet, and composer, who contributed to the modern study of Chinese phonology and grammar. Chao was born a ...
and Lien-sheng Yang wrote a '' Concise Dictionary of Spoken Chinese'' (1947), that emphasized the spoken rather than the written language. Main entries were listed in Gwoyeu Romatzyh, and they distinguished free morphemes from
bound morpheme In linguistics, a bound morpheme is a morpheme (the elementary unit of morphosyntax) that can appear only as part of a larger expression; a free morpheme (or unbound morpheme) is one that can stand alone. A bound morpheme is a type of bound form, ...
s. A hint of non-standard pronunciation was also given, by marking final stops and initial voicing and non-palatalization in non-Mandarin dialects. The Swedish sinologist
Bernhard Karlgren Klas Bernhard Johannes Karlgren (; 15 October 1889 – 20 October 1978) was a Swedish sinologist and linguist who pioneered the study of Chinese historical phonology using modern comparative methods. In the early 20th century, Karlgren conducte ...
wrote the seminal (1957) '' Grammata Serica Recensa'' with his reconstructed pronunciations for Middle Chinese and
Old Chinese Old Chinese, also called Archaic Chinese in older works, is the oldest attested stage of Chinese, and the ancestor of all modern varieties of Chinese. The earliest examples of Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on oracle bones from around 12 ...
. Chinese lexicography advanced during the 1970s. The translator Lin Yutang wrote the semantically sophisticated '' Lin Yutang's Chinese-English Dictionary of Modern Usage'' (1972) that is now available online. The author Liang Shih-Chiu edited two full-scale dictionaries: Chinese-English with over 8,000 characters and 100,000 entries, and English-Chinese with over 160,000 entries. The linguist and professor of Chinese,
John DeFrancis John DeFrancis (August 31, 1911January 2, 2009) was an American linguist, sinologist, author of Chinese language textbooks, lexicographer of Chinese dictionaries, and Professor Emeritus of Chinese Studies at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa ...
edited a groundbreaking Chinese–English dictionary (1996) giving more than 196,000 words or terms alphabetically arranged in a single-tier pinyin order. The user can therefore in a straightforward way find a term whose pronunciation is known rather than searching by radical or character structure, the latter being a 2-tiered approach. This project had long been advocated by another pinyin proponent,
Victor H. Mair Victor Henry Mair (; born March 25, 1943) is an American sinologist. He is a professor of Chinese at the University of Pennsylvania. Among other accomplishments, Mair has edited the standard ''Columbia History of Chinese Literature'' and the ''Col ...
.


Chinese–Chinese dictionaries

When the Republic of China began in 1912, educators and scholars recognized the need to update the 1716 ''Kangxi Zidian''. It was thoroughly revised in the (1915) '' Zhonghua Da Zidian'' ( "Comprehensive Chinese-Character Dictionary"), which corrected over 4,000 ''Kangxi Zidian'' mistakes and added more than 1,000 new characters. Lu Erkui's (1915) ''
Ciyuan The ''Ciyuan'' or ''Tz'u-yüan'' was the first major Chinese dictionary linguistically structured around words (''ci'' ) instead of individual characters (''zi'' ) used to write them. The Commercial Press published the first edition ''Ciyuan'' ...
'' ( "Sources of Words") was a groundbreaking effort in Chinese lexicography and can be considered the first ''cidian'' "word dictionary". Shu Xincheng's (1936) '' Cihai'' ( "Sea of Words") was a comprehensive dictionary of characters and expressions, and provided near-encyclopedic coverage in fields like science, philosophy, history. The ''Cihai'' remains a popular dictionary and has been frequently revised. The (1937) ''Guoyu cidian'' ( "Dictionary of the National Language") was a four-volume dictionary of words, designed to standardize modern pronunciation. The main entries were characters listed phonologically by
Zhuyin Fuhao Bopomofo (), or Mandarin Phonetic Symbols, also named Zhuyin (), is a Chinese transliteration system for Mandarin Chinese and other related languages and dialects. More commonly used in Taiwanese Mandarin, it may also be used to transcribe ...
and Gwoyeu Romatzyh. For example, the title in these systems is and Gwoyeu tsyrdean. Wei Jiangong's (1953) '' Xinhua Zidian'' ( "New China Character Dictionary") is a pocket-sized reference, alphabetically arranged by pinyin. It is the world's most popular reference work. The 11th edition was published in 2011.
Lü Shuxiang Lü Shuxiang (, 1904–1998) was a Chinese linguist, lexicographer and educator, and founder of Modern Chinese linguistic studies. Overview Lü Shuxiang was born in Danyang, Jiangsu Province. He studied Foreign Languages and Literature in the ...
's (1973) '' Xiandai Hanyu Cidian'' ( "Contemporary Chinese Dictionary") is a middle-sized dictionary of words. It is arranged by characters, alphabetized by pinyin, which list compounds and phrases, with a total 56,000 entries (expanded to 70,000 in the 2016 edition). Both the ''Xinhua zidian'' and the ''Xiandai Hanyu cidian'' followed a simplified scheme of 189 radicals. Two outstanding achievements in contemporary Chinese lexicography are the (1986–93) ''
Hanyu Da Cidian The ''Hanyu Da Cidian'' () is the most inclusive available Chinese dictionary. Lexicographically comparable to the '' Oxford English Dictionary'', it has diachronic coverage of the Chinese language, and traces usage over three millennia from Ch ...
'' ( "Comprehensive Dictionary of Chinese Words") with over 370,000 word and phrase entries listed under 23,000 different characters; and the (1986–89) ''
Hanyu Da Zidian The ''Hanyu dazidian'' () is a reference work on Chinese characters. Overview A group of more than 400 editors and lexicographers began compilation in 1974, and it was published in eight volumes from 1986 to 1989. A separate volume of essays do ...
'' ( "Comprehensive Dictionary of Chinese Characters") with 54,678 head entries for characters. They both use a system of 200 radicals. In recent years, the computerization of Chinese has allowed lexicographers to create ''dianzi cidian'' (/ "electronic dictionaries") usable on computers, PDAs, etc. There are proprietary systems, such as Wenlin Software for learning Chinese, and there are also free dictionaries available online. After Paul Denisowski started the volunteer CEDICT (Chinese–English dictionary) project in 1997, it has grown into a standard reference database. The CEDICT is the basis for many Internet dictionaries of Chinese, and is included in the Unihan Database.


Specialized dictionaries

Chinese publishing houses print diverse types of ''zhuanke cidian'' (/ " specialized dictionary"). One Chinese dictionary bibliography lists over 130 subject categories, from "Abbreviations, Accounting" to "Veterinary, Zoology." The following examples are limited to specialized dictionaries from a few representative fields.


Ancient Chinese

Dictionaries of Ancient Chinese give definitions, in Modern Chinese, of characters and words found in the pre-Modern (before 1911) Chinese literature. They are typically organized by ''pinyin'' or by ''Zihui'' radicals, and give definitions in order of antiquity (most ancient to most recent) when several definitions exist. Quotes from the literature exemplifying each listed meaning are given. Quotes are usually chosen from the pre-Han Classical literature when possible, unless the definition emerged during the post-Classical period. Dictionaries intended for historians, linguists, and other classical scholars will sometimes also provide Middle Chinese ''fanqie'' readings and/or Old Chinese rime groups, as well as bronze script or
oracle bone script Oracle bone script () is an ancient form of Chinese characters that were engraved on oracle bonesanimal bones or turtle plastrons used in pyromantic divination. Oracle bone script was used in the late 2nd millennium BC, and is the earliest k ...
forms. While dictionaries published in Mainland China intended for study or reference by high school/college students are generally printed in
Simplified Chinese Simplification, Simplify, or Simplified may refer to: Mathematics Simplification is the process of replacing a mathematical expression by an equivalent one, that is simpler (usually shorter), for example * Simplification of algebraic expressions ...
, dictionaries intended for scholarly research are set in Traditional Chinese. * ''Gudai Hanyu Cidian'' (''Word Dictionary of Ancient Chinese'') Beijing: Commercial Press, 1998. (24000 header words) implified Chinese(This dictionary is the most extensive special purpose ancient Chinese dictionary in terms of the number of words defined. However, general purpose dictionaries like the ''Hanyu Dacidian'', ''Cihai'', and ''Ciyuan'' may contain a larger overall ancient Chinese lexicon, together with modern words.) * ''Guhanyu Changyongzi Zidian'' (''Dictionary of Commonly Used Characters in Ancient Chinese'') Beijing: Commercial Press, 2006. (6400 header characters) implified Chinese, ''Traditional Chinese edition also available'' (This ancient Chinese dictionary is probably the most popular in terms of sales and is intended for a general audience with a non-expert understanding of the Classical language. It is used extensively as a reference and study aid by secondary school students in preparation for the ''wenyanwen'' portion of the Chinese language section of the National College Entrance Examination (''gaokao'').) * ''Wang Li Guhanyu Zidian'' , ''The Wang Li Character Dictionary of Ancient Chinese''. (12500 header characters) raditional Chinese (This dictionary was compiled over a period of 15 years by a team of well-known linguists and specialists in ancient Chinese literature at Peking University originally led by the late Professor Wang Li. It is authoritative and intended for use by scholars of ancient Chinese language and literature.)


Dialects

Twenty centuries ago, the ''Fangyan'' was the first Chinese specialized dictionary. The usual English translation for ''fangyan'' ( lit. "regional/areal speech") is "
dialect The term dialect (from Latin , , from the Ancient Greek word , 'discourse', from , 'through' and , 'I speak') can refer to either of two distinctly different types of linguistic phenomena: One usage refers to a variety of a language that is ...
", but the language situation in China is said to be uniquely complex. In the "dialect" sense of English dialects, Chinese has Mandarin dialects, yet ''fangyan'' also means "non-Mandarin languages, mutually unintelligible regional
varieties of Chinese Chinese, also known as Sinitic, is a branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family consisting of hundreds of local varieties, many of which are not mutually intelligible. Variation is particularly strong in the more mountainous southeast of mai ...
", such as
Cantonese Cantonese ( zh, t=廣東話, s=广东话, first=t, cy=Gwóngdūng wá) is a language within the Chinese (Sinitic) branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages originating from the city of Guangzhou (historically known as Canton) and its surrounding a ...
and
Hakka The Hakka (), sometimes also referred to as Hakka Han, or Hakka Chinese, or Hakkas are a Han Chinese subgroup whose ancestral homes are chiefly in the Hakka-speaking provincial areas of Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, Guangxi, Sichuan, Hunan, Zhej ...
. Some linguists like
John DeFrancis John DeFrancis (August 31, 1911January 2, 2009) was an American linguist, sinologist, author of Chinese language textbooks, lexicographer of Chinese dictionaries, and Professor Emeritus of Chinese Studies at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa ...
prefer the translation "topolect", which are very similar to independent languages. (See also- Protection of the Varieties of Chinese.) The Dictionary of Frequently-Used Taiwan Minnan is an online dictionary of Taiwanese Hokkien. Here are some general ''fangyan cidian'' ( "topolect dictionary") examples. *Beijing University Chinese Department. Hanyu Fangyin Zihui ( "A syllabary of Chinese topolects") Beijing: Wenzi Gaige Chubanshe. 1962. *Beijing University Chinese Department. ''Hanyu fangyan cihui'' ( "A lexicon of Chinese topolects"). Beijing: Wenzi Gaige Chubanshe. 1964. *Xu Baohua and Miyata Ichiro , eds. ''Hanyu fangyan da cidian'' ( "A comprehensive dictionary of Chinese topolects"). Beijing: Zhonghua Shuzhu. 1999. *Zhan Bohui , ed. ''Xiandai Hanyu fangyan da cidian'' ( "A comprehensive dictionary of modern Chinese topolects"). Qianjiang: Hubei Renmin Chubanshe. 2002.


Idioms

Chinese has five words translatable as "
idiom An idiom is a phrase or expression that typically presents a figurative, non-literal meaning attached to the phrase; but some phrases become figurative idioms while retaining the literal meaning of the phrase. Categorized as formulaic language ...
": ''
chengyu ''Chengyu'' () are a type of traditional Chinese idiomatic expression, most of which consist of four characters. ''Chengyu'' were widely used in Classical Chinese and are still common in vernacular Chinese writing and in the spoken language ...
'' (/ "set phrase; idiom"), ''yanyu'' (/ proverb; popular saying, maxim; idiom"), ''
xiehouyu ''Xiehouyu'' is a kind of Chinese proverb consisting of two elements: the former segment presents a novel scenario while the latter provides the rationale thereof. One would often only state the first part, expecting the listener to know the sec ...
'' (/ "truncated witticism,
aposiopesis Aposiopesis (; Classical Greek: ἀποσιώπησις, "becoming silent") is a figure of speech wherein a sentence is deliberately broken off and left unfinished, the ending to be supplied by the imagination, giving an impression of unwillingnes ...
; enigmatic folk simile"), ''xiyu'' (/ "idiom"), and ''guanyongyu'' (/ "fixed expression; idiom; locution"). Some modern dictionaries for idioms are: *Li Yihua and Lu Deshen, eds. ''Hanyu chengyu cidian'' ( "A dictionary of Chinese idioms"). Sichuan Cishu Chubanshe. 1985. *Wang Qin , ed. ''Fenlei Hanyu chengyu da cidian'' ( "A comprehensive classified dictionary of Chinese idioms"). Shandong jiaoyu. 1988. *Li Xingjian , ed. ''Xiandai Hanyu chengyu guifan cidian'' ( "A standard dictionary of modern Chinese idioms"). Changqun Chubanshe. 2000. *Zhang Yipeng , ed. ''Yanyu da dian'' ( "A Dictionary of Chinese Proverbs). Shanghai: Hanyu dacidian Chubanshe. 2004. *Wen Duanzheng . ''Zhongguo yanyu da quan'' ( "An encyclopedia of Chinese proverbs"), 2 vols. Shanghai: Shanghai Cishu. 2004.


Loanwords

The Chinese language adopted a few foreign ''wailaici'' (/ "
loanwords A loanword (also loan word or loan-word) is a word at least partly assimilated from one language (the donor language) into another language. This is in contrast to cognates, which are words in two or more languages that are similar because th ...
") during the
Han dynasty The Han dynasty (, ; ) was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC – 9 AD, 25–220 AD), established by Emperor Gaozu of Han, Liu Bang (Emperor Gao) and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by th ...
, especially after Zhang Qian's exploration of the Western Regions. The lexicon absorbed many Buddhist terms and concepts when
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism which has shaped Chinese culture in a wide variety of areas including art, politics, literature, philosophy, ...
began to flourish in the Southern and Northern dynasties. During the late 19th century, when Western powers forced open China's doors, numerous loanwords entered Chinese, many through the
Japanese language is spoken natively by about 128 million people, primarily by Japanese people and primarily in Japan, the only country where it is the national language. Japanese belongs to the Japonic or Japanese- Ryukyuan language family. There have been ...
. While some foreign borrowings became obsolete, others became indispensable terms in modern vocabulary. *Cen Qixiang ed. ''Hanyu Wailaiyu Cidian'' ( "Dictionary of Loanwords in Chinese"). Beijing: Commercial Press. 1990. *Liu Zhengtan , et al. eds. ''Hanyu Wailaici Cidian'' ( "Dictionary of Loanwords in Chinese"). Hong Kong: Commercial Press; Shanghai: Shanghai cishu chubanshe. 1985. *Shi Youwei , ed. ''Hanyu wailaici'' ( "Loanwords in Chinese"). Beijing: Commercial Press. 2000.


Vernacular literature

The 20th century saw the rapid progress of the studies of the lexicons found in the Chinese vernacular literature, which includes novels, dramas and poetry. Important works in the field include: *Zhang Xiang , ''Shiciqu Yuci Huishi'' ( "Compilation and Explanations of the Colloquial Terms Found in Classical Poetry and Dramas"). Pioneering work in the field, completed in 1945 but published posthumously in 1954 in Shanghai by Zhonghua Book Company. Many reprints. *Jiang Lihong , ''Dunhuang Bianwen Ziyi Tongshi'' ( "A Comprehensive Glossary of the Special Terms Found in the Genre of Dunhuang Bianwen"), revised and enlarged edition with supplements. Shanghai: Shanghai guji chubanshe. 1997. First published 1962. *Wang Ying , ''Shiciqu Yuci Lishi'' ( "Explanations of the Colloquial Terms Found in Classical Poetry and Dramas, Illustrated by Examples"), 2nd revised and enlarged edition. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. 2005. First published 1980. *Gu Xuejie & Wang Xueqi , ''Yuanqu Shici'' ( "Explanation of the Special Terms Found in the Yuan Operas"). Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe. 1983–1990. 4 volumes. *Wang Ying , ''Tangsong Biji Yuci Huishi'' ( "Compilation and Explanations of the Colloquial Terms Found in the Biji of the Tang and Song Dynasties"), revised edition. Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company. 2001. First published 1990. *Wang Ying , ''Songyuanming Shiyu Huishi'' ( "Compilation and Explanations of the Jargon and Slang used in the Song and Yuan Dynasties"). Guiyang: Guizhou renmin chubanshe. 1997. *Fang Linggui , ''Gudian Xiqu Wailaiyu Kaoshi Cidian'' ( "A Dictionary of Loanwords in Classical Dramas of China"). Shanghai: Hanyu da cidian chubanshe; Kunming: Yunnan daxue chubanshe. 2001. First published in 1991 as ''Yuanming Xiqu Zhong De Mengguyu'' ( "Mongolian Expressions in Yuan and Ming Dramas") by Shanghai: Hanyu dacidian chubanshe. Covering mainly the loanwords form Mongolian.


Chinese learners

Employing
corpus linguistics Corpus linguistics is the study of a language as that language is expressed in its text corpus (plural ''corpora''), its body of "real world" text. Corpus linguistics proposes that a reliable analysis of a language is more feasible with corpora ...
and lists of Chinese characters arranged by frequency of usage (e.g., '' List of Commonly Used Characters in Modern Chinese)'', lexicographers have compiled dictionaries for learners of
Chinese as a foreign language Chinese as a foreign or second language is when non-native speakers study Chinese varieties. The increased interest in China from those outside has led to a corresponding interest in the study of Standard Chinese (a type of Mandarin Chinese) as a ...
. These specialized Chinese dictionaries are available either as add-ons to existing publications like Yuan's 2004 Pocket Dictionary and Wenlin or as specific ones like *Fenn, Courtenay H. and Hsien-tseng Chin. 1926. '' The Five Thousand Dictionary; A Chinese-English Pocket Dictionary''. Mission Book Company. 1942. rev. American ed. Harvard University Press. 1973. 13th reprinting. *Huang, Po-fei. 1973. ''IFEL Vocabulary of Spoken Chinese''. Yale University Far Eastern Publications. *Liu, Eric Shen. 1973. ''Frequency dictionary of Chinese words (Linguistic structures)''. Mouton. *Ho, Yong. 2001. ''Chinese-English Frequency Dictionary: A Study Guide to Mandarin Chinese's 500 Most Frequently Used Words''. Hippocrene Books.
Cover image
*Burkhardt, Michael. 2010. ''TPS Frequency Dictionary of Mandarin Chinese: A Study Guide to 2,500 Characters and Over 24,000 Words and Phrases''. Raleigh, NC: Lulu Press.


Deficiencies

Victor H. Mair lists eight adverse features of traditional Chinese lexicography, some of which have continued up to the present day: (1) persistent confusion of spoken word with written graph; (2) lack of etymological science as opposed to the analysis of script; (3) absence of the concept of word; (4) ignoring the script's historical developments in the oracle bones and bronze inscriptions; (5) no precise, unambiguous, and convenient means for specifying pronunciations; (6) no standardized, user-friendly means for looking up words and graphs; (7) failure to distinguish linguistically between vernacular and literary registers, or between usages peculiar to different regions and times; and (8) open-endedness of the writing system, with current unabridged character dictionaries containing 60,000 to 85,000 graphs.


References

* * Footnotes


Online Chinese dictionaries



: Clique (graph theory) based visual dictionary
Chinese English Dictionary for LearnersChinese Tools DictionaryChinese Notes - open source Chinese-DictionaryLINE English-Chinese DictionaryChinese-English Dictionary
Omegadict
WrittenChinese.Com Free Online Chinese-English Dictionary
Search results are ranked by frequency of occurrence in everyday Chinese text.

Directory of online Chinese dictionaries
Stroke Order Animation & Dictionary
Arch Chinese

altogether 155941 entries.
websaru
Online Chinese–English Dictionary (and other tools for learning Chinese)
YellowBridge Chinese Dictionary
Similar to the previous site, but more centered on Chinese culture
DICT.TW
Online Dictionary

Mandarintools
Chinglish: Chinese–English Dictionary
Rick Harbaugh
Lin Yutang's Chinese–English Dictionary of Modern Usage
Chinese University of Hong Kong

''Kangxi zidian'' (in Chinese)
CTP Dictionary
Classical Chinese-character usage dictionary
bab.la
a Wikipedia-style language portal
Linguabot.com
a Creative Commons licensed dictionary based on Wikipedia article titles
Malay Chinese DictionaryTasty Mantou Chinese
Online dictionary with over 2 million entries and translated examples.
Zhonga.org Chinese Dictionary
Chinese-English and English-Chinese dictionary with handwriting recognition, character evolution information, pronunciation and video examples.
Chinese-French dictionary
with handwriting recognition
English <> Chinese Dictionary
A minimalistic and bidirectional English-Chinese dictionary


Further reading

* Hixson, Sandra and James Mathias. (1975). ''A Compilation of Chinese Dictionaries''. New Haven: Far Eastern Publications. * Uy, Dr. Timothy and Jim Hsia, ed. ''Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary''. 2009. (Chinese, Pinyin, Bopomofo to English; e-Book PDF format)
Loqu8 Press
* Wan, Grace. 1970.

'. Chinese Materials and Research Aids Service Center.


External links



Dylan W.H. Sung *

ChinaCulture
Word Lists and Online Glossaries/DictionariesChinese Character Frequency List
, Linguistic Data Consortium

Centre for Translation Studies, University of Leeds

David L. Porter, University of Michigan

Developed by Beijing Language and Culture University
Early Chinese lexicography
– full texts of the Shuowen, Erya, Xiao Erya, Shiming and Fangyan dictionaries (Chinese) {{DEFAULTSORT:Chinese Dictionary Lexicography Sinology