Chesapeake–Leopard affair
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The ''Chesapeake''–''Leopard'' affair was a naval engagement off the coast of
Norfolk, Virginia Norfolk ( ) is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. Incorporated in 1705, it had a population of 238,005 at the 2020 census, making it the third-most populous city in Virginia after neighboring Virginia B ...
, on June 22, 1807, between the British fourth-rate and the American
frigate A frigate () is a type of warship. In different eras, the roles and capabilities of ships classified as frigates have varied somewhat. The name frigate in the 17th to early 18th centuries was given to any full-rigged ship built for speed an ...
. The crew of ''Leopard'' pursued, attacked, and boarded the American frigate, looking for deserters from the
Royal Navy The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against Fr ...
. ''Chesapeake'' was caught unprepared and after a short battle involving
broadside Broadside or broadsides may refer to: Naval * Broadside (naval), terminology for the side of a ship, the battery of cannon on one side of a warship, or their near simultaneous fire on naval warfare Printing and literature * Broadside (comic ...
s received from ''Leopard'', the commander of ''Chesapeake'', James Barron, surrendered his vessel to the British. ''Chesapeake'' had fired only one shot. Four crew members were removed from the American vessel and were tried for desertion, one of whom was subsequently hanged. ''Chesapeake'' was allowed to return home, where James Barron was
court martial A court-martial or court martial (plural ''courts-martial'' or ''courts martial'', as "martial" is a postpositive adjective) is a military court or a trial conducted in such a court. A court-martial is empowered to determine the guilt of memb ...
ed and relieved of command. The ''Chesapeake''–''Leopard'' affair created an uproar among Americans. There were strident calls for war with Great Britain, but these quickly subsided. President
Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, architect, philosopher, and Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father who served as the third president of the United States from 18 ...
initially attempted to use this widespread bellicosity to diplomatically threaten the British government into settling the matter. The United States Congress backed away from armed conflict when British envoys showed no contrition for the ''Chesapeake'' affair, delivering proclamations reaffirming
impressment Impressment, colloquially "the press" or the "press gang", is the taking of men into a military or naval force by compulsion, with or without notice. European navies of several nations used forced recruitment by various means. The large size of ...
. Jefferson's political failure to coerce Great Britain led him toward economic warfare: the Embargo of 1807.


Background

On June 22 of 1807, during the
Napoleonic Wars The Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815) were a series of major global conflicts pitting the French Empire and its allies, led by Napoleon I, against a fluctuating array of European states formed into various coalitions. It produced a period of Fre ...
, several British naval vessels were on duty on the
North American Station The North America and West Indies Station was a formation or command of the United Kingdom's Royal Navy stationed in North American waters from 1745 to 1956. The North American Station was separate from the Jamaica Station until 1830 when the ...
, blockading two French
third-rate In the rating system of the Royal Navy, a third rate was a ship of the line which from the 1720s mounted between 64 and 80 guns, typically built with two gun decks (thus the related term two-decker). Years of experience proved that the thi ...
warships in
Chesapeake Bay The Chesapeake Bay ( ) is the largest estuary in the United States. The Bay is located in the Mid-Atlantic region and is primarily separated from the Atlantic Ocean by the Delmarva Peninsula (including the parts: the Eastern Shore of Maryland / ...
. A number of
Royal Navy The Royal Navy (RN) is the United Kingdom's naval warfare force. Although warships were used by English and Scottish kings from the early medieval period, the first major maritime engagements were fought in the Hundred Years' War against Fr ...
seamen had deserted from their ships and local American authorities gave them sanctuary. One of the deserters, a Londoner named Jenkin Ratford, joined the crew of . Ratford had made himself conspicuous to British officers by shouting at them on the streets of
Norfolk, Virginia Norfolk ( ) is an independent city in the Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. Incorporated in 1705, it had a population of 238,005 at the 2020 census, making it the third-most populous city in Virginia after neighboring Virginia B ...
. Other deserters were reported to be at the Gosport Navy Yard, then commanded by
Stephen Decatur Stephen Decatur Jr. (; January 5, 1779 – March 22, 1820) was an American naval officer and commodore. He was born on the eastern shore of Maryland in Worcester County. His father, Stephen Decatur Sr., was a commodore in the Unit ...
. Decatur received a letter from the British consul ordering him to turn over three men alleged to have deserted from . The consul claimed the men had enlisted in the U.S. Navy, which was recruiting a crew for ''Chesapeake'', then at the
Washington Navy Yard The Washington Navy Yard (WNY) is the former shipyard and ordnance plant of the United States Navy in Southeast Washington, D.C. It is the oldest shore establishment of the U.S. Navy. The Yard currently serves as a ceremonial and administrat ...
outfitting for a voyage to the
Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean Basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Western and Southern Europe and Anatolia, on the south by North Africa, and on ...
. Vice-Admiral Sir George Berkeley dispatched his flagship, the
fourth-rate In 1603 all English warships with a compliment of fewer than 160 men were known as 'small ships'. In 1625/26 to establish pay rates for officers a six tier naval ship rating system was introduced.Winfield 2009 These small ships were divided i ...
warship , with written orders authorizing him to board and search the United States warship to recover any deserters. Berkeley ordered ''Leopard''s captain to search for deserters from , , , , , and the cutter .


Attack and search

''Chesapeake'' was off the coast of Norfolk, Virginia, commanded by Commodore James Barron, when ''Leopard'', under Captain
Salusbury Pryce Humphreys Sir Salusbury Pryce Humphreys (24 November 1778 – 17 November 1845), later called Salusbury Pryce Davenport, was an officer of the Royal Navy who saw service during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars and the War of 1812, rising to t ...
, encountered and hailed her. Barron was not alarmed, and received Lieutenant John Meade on board, who presented Barron with the search warrant. After an inconclusive discussion, Meade returned to ''Leopard''. Captain Humphreys, using a hailing trumpet, ordered the American ship to submit. When ''Chesapeake'' did not, Humphreys fired a round across her bow. This was followed immediately by ''Leopard'' firing
broadside Broadside or broadsides may refer to: Naval * Broadside (naval), terminology for the side of a ship, the battery of cannon on one side of a warship, or their near simultaneous fire on naval warfare Printing and literature * Broadside (comic ...
s into the American ship. Her guns unloaded and her decks cluttered with stores in preparation for a long cruise, ''Chesapeake'' managed to fire only a single gun in reply. The humiliated Barron struck his colors and surrendered. Three of ''Chesapeake''s crew had been killed and 18 wounded, including Barron, by the attack. However, Humphreys refused the surrender and sent a boarding party to ''Chesapeake'' to search for deserters. Scores of British nationals had signed on as crewmen of ''Chesapeake'', but Humphreys seized only the four Royal Navy deserters: Daniel Martin, John Strachan and William Ware all from HMS ''Melampus'', and Jenkin Ratford, formerly on . Only Ratford was British-born. The others were American residents,Free and enslaved people of African descent were not legally allowed to be American citizens in 1807. but had been serving on British warships. Daniel Martin, for instance, claimed he was born in
Westport, Massachusetts Westport (Massachusett: ) is a town in Bristol County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 16,339 at the 2020 census. The village of North Westport lies in the town. Other named areas of the town are "Westport Point," which has a ...
; he was described as age 24, high with "woolly hair", black eyes and dark yellow complexion and a small scar over his right eyebrow. Prior to serving on ''Chesapeake'', Martin served on the merchant vessel ''Caledonia'' and was described as "a colored man." Newspaper accounts of the time state Martin was not born in the United States but brought to Massachusetts, (possibly enslaved) when he was six years old by mariner William Howland, from
Buenos Aires Buenos Aires ( or ; ), officially the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires ( es, link=no, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires), is the capital and primate city of Argentina. The city is located on the western shore of the Río de la Plata, on South ...
. The
brig A brig is a type of sailing vessel defined by its rig: two masts which are both square-rigged. Brigs originated in the second half of the 18th century and were a common type of smaller merchant vessel or warship from then until the latter part ...
brought the first dispatches to Halifax in early July. ''Leopard'' followed with her prisoners for trial. Jenkin Ratford, the sole British citizen, was sentenced to death and was hanged from the
yardarm A yard is a spar on a mast from which sails are set. It may be constructed of timber or steel or from more modern materials such as aluminium or carbon fibre. Although some types of fore and aft rigs have yards, the term is usually used to de ...
of ''Halifax'' on August 31, 1807. The three American deserters received sentences of 500 lashes each, but the sentences were later commuted. The bloody encounter caused a storm of protest from the U.S. government, and the
British government ga, Rialtas a Shoilse gd, Riaghaltas a Mhòrachd , image = HM Government logo.svg , image_size = 220px , image2 = Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (HM Government).svg , image_size2 = 180px , caption = Royal Arms , date_est ...
eventually offered to return the three American residents and to pay reparations for the damage to ''Chesapeake''. After over 5 years spent in bonded service with the Royal Navy, the last two deserters were returned to
Boston Boston (), officially the City of Boston, is the state capital and most populous city of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, as well as the cultural and financial center of the New England region of the United States. It is the 24th- mo ...
, Massachusetts by the
schooner A schooner () is a type of sailing vessel defined by its rig: fore-and-aft rigged on all of two or more masts and, in the case of a two-masted schooner, the foremast generally being shorter than the mainmast. A common variant, the topsail schoo ...
, one month after the outbreak of the War of 1812.


Aftermath

The incident outraged American public opinion, and many felt the country's "sense of honor" had been violated. Americans of every political stripe spoke of the need to uphold national honor, and to reject the dismissal of the United States by Britain as a third-class nonentity. Americans talked incessantly about the need for force in response. President
Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, architect, philosopher, and Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father who served as the third president of the United States from 18 ...
noted: "Never since the
Battle of Lexington The Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War. The battles were fought on April 19, 1775, in Middlesex County, Province of Massachusetts Bay, within the towns of Lexington, Concord, ...
have I seen this country in such a state of exasperation as at present, and even that did not produce such unanimity."
James Monroe James Monroe ( ; April 28, 1758July 4, 1831) was an American statesman, lawyer, diplomat, and Founding Father who served as the fifth president of the United States from 1817 to 1825. A member of the Democratic-Republican Party, Monroe was ...
, then a foreign minister acting under instructions from U.S. Secretary of State James Madison, demanded British disavowal of the deed, the restoration of the four seamen, the recall of Admiral Berkeley, the exclusion of British warships from U.S. territorial waters, and the abolition of
impressment Impressment, colloquially "the press" or the "press gang", is the taking of men into a military or naval force by compulsion, with or without notice. European navies of several nations used forced recruitment by various means. The large size of ...
s from vessels under the United States flag. The event raised tensions between the two countries and, while possibly not a direct cause, was one of the events leading up to the
War of 1812 The War of 1812 (18 June 1812 – 17 February 1815) was fought by the United States of America and its indigenous allies against the United Kingdom and its allies in British North America, with limited participation by Spain in Florida. It be ...
. Many Americans demanded war because of the attack, but President Jefferson turned to diplomacy and economic pressure in the form of the ill-fated
Embargo Act of 1807 The Embargo Act of 1807 was a general trade embargo on all foreign nations that was enacted by the United States Congress. As a successor or replacement law for the 1806 Non-importation Act and passed as the Napoleonic Wars continued, it repr ...
. The
Federal government A federation (also known as a federal state) is a political entity characterized by a union of partially self-governing provinces, states, or other regions under a central federal government ( federalism). In a federation, the self-gover ...
began to be concerned about the lack of war material. Their concerns led to the establishment of a tariff protecting the manufacturers of gunpowder, which helped ensure the fortunes of the
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company. The incident had significant repercussions for the U.S. Navy. The public was shocked that ''Chesapeake'' had not been able to put up any resistance and surrendered so quickly, questioning the ability of the Navy to defend the country in the case of a war with Great Britain, despite the expensive and controversial frigate-building program. A
court-martial A court-martial or court martial (plural ''courts-martial'' or ''courts martial'', as "martial" is a postpositive adjective) is a military court or a trial conducted in such a court. A court-martial is empowered to determine the guilt of memb ...
blamed Barron and suspended him from service for five years as punishment. In 1820, Commodore Barron challenged and mortally wounded Commodore
Stephen Decatur Stephen Decatur Jr. (; January 5, 1779 – March 22, 1820) was an American naval officer and commodore. He was born on the eastern shore of Maryland in Worcester County. His father, Stephen Decatur Sr., was a commodore in the Unit ...
in a
duel A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two people, with matched weapons, in accordance with agreed-upon rules. During the 17th and 18th centuries (and earlier), duels were mostly single combats fought with swords (the rapier and ...
over remarks Decatur had made about Barron's conduct in 1807 (Barron was also wounded). Decatur had served on the court-martial that found Barron guilty of being unprepared and barred him from command for five years. ''Chesapeake'' herself was captured during the War of 1812, when on June 1, 1813, after a series of naval engagements with the Royal Navy, the British frigate captured ''Chesapeake'' in a
single-ship action A single-ship action is a naval engagement fought between two warships of opposing sides, excluding submarine engagements; called so because there is a single ship on each side. The following is a list of notable single-ship actions. Single-shi ...
near Boston. The Royal Navy commissioned ''Chesapeake'', but put her up for sale at
Portsmouth Portsmouth ( ) is a port and city in the ceremonial county of Hampshire in southern England. The city of Portsmouth has been a unitary authority since 1 April 1997 and is administered by Portsmouth City Council. Portsmouth is the most d ...
in July 1819. Her timbers are now part of the
Chesapeake Mill The Chesapeake Mill is a watermill in Wickham, Hampshire, England. The flour mill was constructed in 1820 using the timbers of HMS ''Chesapeake'', which had previously been the United States Navy frigate . The ''Chesapeake'' was attacked and ...
in Wickham, England.


In fiction

The fallout from the ''Chesapeake''–''Leopard'' affair features prominently in two novels of the
Aubrey–Maturin series The Aubrey–Maturin series is a sequence of nautical historical novels—20 completed and one unfinished—by English author Patrick O'Brian, set during the Napoleonic Wars and centring on the friendship between Captain Jack Aubrey of the ...
by
Patrick O'Brian Patrick O'Brian, CBE (12 December 1914 – 2 January 2000), born Richard Patrick Russ, was an English novelist and translator, best known for his Aubrey–Maturin series of sea novels set in the Royal Navy during the Napoleonic Wars, and cent ...
. It is first mentioned in the fifth novel, '' Desolation Island'', when the fictional Captain Jack Aubrey is given command of ''Leopard'' (which he privately refers to as the "horrible old ''Leopard''") a few years after the incident. Though the United States and Great Britain are at peace at the time, and neither he nor any member of his crew had any direct involvement with the affair, he is met with mistrust and hostility from American whalers due to their negative association with the ship. The subsequent capture of ''Chesapeake'' during the War of 1812 features prominently in the sixth Aubrey–Maturin novel, ''
The Fortune of War ''The Fortune of War'' is the sixth historical novel in the Aubrey-Maturin series by British author Patrick O'Brian, first published in 1979. It is set during the War of 1812. HMS ''Leopard'' made its way to Botany Bay, left its prisoners ...
,'' as Aubrey is aboard during the engagement. The ''Chesapeake''–''Leopard'' affair is mentioned in the ''Boston Jacky'' novel of the ''Bloody Jack'' adventures series by L.A. Meyer.


See also

*
Little Belt affair The ''Little Belt'' affair was a naval battle on the night of 16 May 1811. It involved the United States frigate and the British sixth-rate , a sloop-of-war, which had originally been the Danish ship ''Lillebælt'', before being captured by t ...
*
Bibliography of early United States naval history Historical accounts for early U.S. naval history now occur across the spectrum of two and more centuries. This Bibliography lends itself primarily to reliable sources covering early U.S. naval history beginning around the American Revolution per ...


References


Bibliography

* * * *Ivie, Robert L. "The metaphor of force in prowar discourse: The case of 1812." ''Quarterly Journal of Speech'' 68#3 (1982) pp. 240–253. * * * * *Risjord, Norman K. "1812: Conservatives, War Hawks and the Nation's Honor." ''William and Mary Quarterly: A Magazine of Early American History'' (1961): 196–210
in JSTOR
* *


Further reading

* * * * * * * Gilje, Paul A. ''Free Trade and Sailors' Rights in the War of 1812'' (Cambridge University Press, 2013) * * *


External links


Journal of the Early Republic: ''Remembering the USS'' Chesapeake: ''The Politics of Maritime Death and Impressment'' by Robert E. Cray, Jr.
(read via library card)

(full text via subscribing institution) * ttps://web.archive.org/web/20120313162125/http://www.norfolkhistorical.org/highlights/30.html Norfolk Historical Society Account {{DEFAULTSORT:Chesapeake-Leopard affair 1807 in the British Empire 1807 in the United States United Kingdom–United States relations International maritime incidents War of 1812 Naval battles involving the United States Naval battles involving Great Britain Presidency of Thomas Jefferson 1807 in Virginia Conflicts in 1807 June 1807 events Combat incidents Events that led to courts-martial