History
Generally, the tombs are attributed to theArchitecture
This type of graveyard in Sindh and Baluchistan is remarkable because of its main north–south orientation. The more elaborate graves are constructed with a buff-coloredDiscovery and Research
The earliest -passing- reference of the Chaukhandi tombs (a.k.a. Jokundee) is in a letter of J. Macleod, addressed to H. B. E. Frere in 1851 . The tombs, however, were given more serious attention for the first time by H. D. Baskerville, the Assistant Collector of Thatta inA cemetery of this type was discovered at the turn of the 20th century in Hinidan by Major M. A. Tighe, Political Agent in southern Balochistan. J. P. Vogel was the first to investigate this and other cemeteries – including Karpasan (a plateau south of Hinidan), Gundar (a village near Dinga, south of Hinidan), and Manghopir – and he drew attention to another cemetery discovered by Captain Showers, Political Agent in Kalat, lying between the Hub River and Sonmiani. Vogel recognized that the tombs were Islamic, as indicated by the use of the Arabic script and the alignment of the monuments. According to Islamic custom, the dead are laid to rest in such a way that they are facingAfter the Second World War the Chaukhandi tombs did not receive any attention from the Pakistan authorities until Dr. I. H. Qureshi, a renowned historian and the then education minister (later Chancellor ofMecca Mecca (; officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, commonly shortened to Makkah ()) is a city and administrative center of the Mecca Province of Saudi Arabia, and the holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow ..., resting on their right shoulder. Mecca lies approximately to the west of Sindh; the longitudinal axis of the tombs accordingly lies more or less in a north-south direction, with the head always lying in the north. In (...) 1910, Sir Thomas Holdich described a similar cemetery near Malir and also referred to several other cemeteries. He stated that local tradition ascribed these to the 'Kalmati Kalmati or Qarmati, Qarmatian, Karmati, Kalmat is a Baloch clan settled in the Balochistan and Sindh provinces of Pakistan. They are part of the Hoth (Baloch Tribe) Hoth Tribe, claiming descent from King Hoth, a son of Jalal Khan. When the Hot ...' Balochis, and he linked this name to the town of Kalmat on the Makran Coast. In 1917, H. D. Baskerville discovered a similar cemetery in the vicinity of the village of Chaukhandi, nearKarachi Karachi (; ur, ; ; ) is the most populous city in Pakistan and 12th most populous city in the world, with a population of over 20 million. It is situated at the southern tip of the country along the Arabian Sea coast. It is the former c .... Baskerville's published report raised the question of a possible above-ground burial – but he dismissed this after a careful investigation of one of the stone chambers in the cemetery, which did not contain any remains. A number of tomb inscriptions were found at the Chaukhandi cemetery, consisting of names and/or sayings from the Quran. Some of the named dead were said to belong to the Jokhiya tribe, still resident in the vicinity. Only one of the tombs was dated – the date of death being inscribed on it with the numbers in reverse order – as AH 1169 (AD 1756). Jokhio, Jokhia or Jokhiya (Urdu:جوکھيو) are said to be descendants of theSamma (tribe) Samma are a very large and important indigenous tribe of Sindh Sindh (; ; ur, , ; historically romanized as Sind) is one of the four provinces of Pakistan. Located in the southeastern region of the country, Sindh is the third-largest ...of Sindh. In 1925, Henry Cousens devoted a chapter of his book on the antiquities of Sindh to 'Baloch tombs'. He studied the tombs in Jarak (now spelt Jerruck), Sonda and Kharkharo, which were of the same type as Chaukhandi. Referring to the studies by G. E. L. Carter, he noted that more than twenty such cemeteries had been identified, and rejected the theory regarding above-ground burials, pointing to the frequent occurrence of arcade-like perforations in the lower casket. Cousens was the first to draw comparisons with other architectural monuments in Sindh, and he refers to similarities between the decoration of a tomb in Sonda and the tombs ofMian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro (died 1772) sd, ميان غلام شاه ڪلهوڙو ) was the ruler of the Kalhora Dynasty from 1758 when he was appointed ruler of Sindh by tribal Chiefs of Kalhora replacing his brother Mian Muradyab Kalhoro. He was ...(Shah Wardi Khan) (d. 1772) inHyderabad Hyderabad ( ; , ) is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana and the ''de jure'' capital of Andhra Pradesh. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River, in the northern part of Southern India ...as well as the tomb of the Samma king, Jam Nizamuddin II (reigned 1461–1509), an impressive square structure built of sandstone and decorated with floral and geometric medallions. Comparable is also the mausoleum of Isa KhanTarkhan Tarkhan ( otk, 𐱃𐰺𐰴𐰣, Tarqan, mn, or ; fa, ترخان; ; ar , طرخان; alternative spellings ''Tarkan'', ''Tarkhaan'', ''Tarqan'', ''Tarchan'', ''Turxan'', ''Tarcan'', ''Turgan, Tárkány, Tarján'') is an ancient Central Asia ...the Younger (d. 1644) in the necropolis ofMakli Hill Makli Necropolis ( ur, ; sd, مڪلي جو مقام) is one of the largest funerary sites in the world, spread over an area of 10 kilometres near the city of Thatta, in the Pakistani province of Sindh. The site houses approximately 500,000 to .... Regarding the covering of the tombs with ''chattris'' (cupola's or pavilions), he points to similar tombs in the same Makli necropolis and to the tomb of Mir Masum inSukkur Sukkur (; ) is a city in the Pakistani province of Sindh along the western bank of the Indus River, directly across from the historic city of Rohri. Sukkur is the third largest city in Sindh after Karachi and Hyderabad, and 14th largest city .... He considered the tombs to be of approximately the same date as the tombs ofMian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro (died 1772) sd, ميان غلام شاه ڪلهوڙو ) was the ruler of the Kalhora Dynasty from 1758 when he was appointed ruler of Sindh by tribal Chiefs of Kalhora replacing his brother Mian Muradyab Kalhoro. He was ...- i.e. the second half of the 18th century. Cousens pointed out that depictions of riders, as seen on some of the tombs, are also found on ''sati'' (shrine) stones in Kathiawar and Kutch. Information about a single tomb of this type in the vicinity of the village of Baghwana, south-west of theLas Bela (princely state) Las Bela () was a princely state in a subsidiary alliance with British India (later a princely state of Pakistan) which existed until 1955. The state occupied an area of in the extreme southeast of the Balochistan region, with an extensive ..., was published in 1931 by Sir Aurel Stein. According to local tradition the tomb was that of Mai Masura, a saintly beggar women; legend had it that the stone slabs had miraculously flown through the air fromKandahar Kandahar (; Kandahār, , Qandahār) is a city in Afghanistan, located in the south of the country on the Arghandab River, at an elevation of . It is Afghanistan's second largest city after Kabul, with a population of about 614,118. It is the c .... Stein considered it to date from the end of the 15th century. In 1934, in a publication concerning monuments of Sindh, Nani Gopala Majumdar described a funerary enclosure on Tharro Hill near Gujjo. He believed that that cemetery enclosure dated from the 14th century, being therefore older than the monuments onMakli Hill Makli Necropolis ( ur, ; sd, مڪلي جو مقام) is one of the largest funerary sites in the world, spread over an area of 10 kilometres near the city of Thatta, in the Pakistani province of Sindh. The site houses approximately 500,000 to ...; he also found some additional tombs of lesser significance in the vicinity of the nearby mausoleum of Sheikh Turabi.
Zajadacz-Hastenrath study
In 1978 Salome Zajadacz-Hastenrath published a book in which she mainly dealt with the stylistic evolution of Chaukhandi tombs. Comparing Chaukhandi tombs (tombs of particular types and forms thereof) among each other, a typological framework was established and consequently a relative chronology. By comparing this framework with dated structures, mainly ofLatest Research
Pakistani professor Mirza Mahad Baig visited Sindh at the end of the 20th century and examined some of the tombs. He pointed out toMeaning of Chaukhandi
There are various opinions as to the meaning of the word ''Chaukhandi''. Shaikh Khurshid Hasan writes:Some scholars believed that ''Chaukhandi'' is the name of a place. Others take it to be an architectural term. On the necropolis of 'Chaukhandi' stands the tomb of one Jam Murid bin Haji, which contains the word ''Chaukhandi'', along with the name of the deceased. Shaikh Khurshid Hasan therefore considered ''Chaukhandi'' to be the name of the place. More so, when Banerji visited the Chaukhandi graveyard in 1920, he referred oit as "the little village Chaukhandi". According to Mumtaz Hassan, ''Chaw'' in Sindhi language means ''four'' and ''Khundi'' ''corner'' or ''pillar''. ''Chaukhandi'' would refer to the four pillars supporting the umbrella shaped dome over the tomb and would apply to all tombs having the same construction. However, this argument has flaws because all the tombs covered with umbrella shaped domes or with a rectangular pavilion at Chaukhandi have more than four pillars or columns. Even at Mangophir, a canopy over similar graves has more than four pillars. As regards to the suggestion that ''Chaukhandi'' is the name of a place, Mumtaz Hassan feels that such a view derives from the fact that the name Chaukhandi had come to be associated with the tombs near Landhi. As mentioned above, on one tomb the word ''Chaukhandi'' is engraved. That might signify the location rather than the structural style of the monument. It is therefore possible that the word ''Chaukhandi'', originally referring to the style of construction, became associated with one particular site. li AhmadBrohi's view on the other hand is that ''Chaukhandi'' is used for a domed roof, a kind of ''chhattri'' (umbrella/pavilion) which is supported by four to eight pillars, whiereby the sides are left open. According to Kaleem Lashari, the word ''Chaukhandi'' as inscribed on the grave of Jam Murid bin Haji is a compound word with ''Sahib'' and is to be read as such ''Sahib-e-Chaukhandi'' and not on its own. He compares it to the 'Sahib-e-Jaidad'' (Owner of a land) It clarifies that Jam Murid is the owner of the Chaukhandi or that the Chaukhandi is erected over his grave. In support of his theory he refers to a similar inscription on a grave at Got Raj Malik and, therefore, does not agree that ''Chaukhandi'' is the name of a place. Dr. Baloch has further tried to explain the meaning of the word ''Chaukhandi''. Literally, it suggests a four walled enclosure open from above. In the cultural tradition of Sindh, such a walled enclosure is called a Chaukhandi, which is constructed out of respect around the grave of a revered person. Chaukhandi as such is therefore not a grave or tomb in itself, but the four walled enclosure in which the person(s) has been buried. Referring to the burial place, it would be called ChaukhandiN. A. Baloch, Kalmati Tombs in Sindh and Balochistan, Pakistan Archaeology No. 26, Department of Archaeology, Govt. of Pakistan, Karachi 1991.Salome Zajadacz-Hastenrath is of the opinion that the original age and history of Chaukhandi tombs are still entirely unclear. She writes
The tombs are often referred to as 'Baloch Tombs' – a name based on local traditions linking the tombs to various tribal groups, namely the Burfat, Kalamati, Jakhara and Jokhiya. The fact that the cemeteries lie in an area in which the Balochis are either the only ethnic group or live alongside other tribes provides support for this description. However, the area across which the cemeteries are spread is by no means identical with that of the Balochis, but includes only a tiny fraction of it. For this reason, the term 'Baloch tombs' does not appear very accurate. It suggests the conclusion that this type of tomb is a peculiarity of the Balochis and might be explained in some way through the common culture and history of the tribe as a whole – although there is no evidence of this. It would seem to make better sense to assign to the tombs the name of the subgroup of the tribe to which they can genuinely be traced – assuming that this could be identified with any precision. Similar difficulties arise when one attempts to attribute the tombs to any tribe other than the Balochis.Salome Zajadacz-Hastenrath also comments on Mumtaz Hassan's theory and says In her book she says the generic term ''Chaukhandi tombs'' is used in the sense of tombs resembling those found at the cemetery in Chaukhandi.
See also
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