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A charging station, also known as a charge point or electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE), is a piece of equipment that supplies
electrical power Electric power is the rate at which electrical energy is transferred by an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second. Standard prefixes apply to watts as with other SI units: thousands, millions and billion ...
for charging
plug-in electric vehicle A plug-in electric vehicle (PEV) is any road vehicle that can utilize an external source of electricity (such as a wall socket that connects to the power grid) to store electrical power within its onboard rechargeable battery packs, which then ...
s (including
electric car An electric car, battery electric car, or all-electric car is an automobile that is propelled by one or more electric motors, using only energy stored in batteries. Compared to internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles, electric cars are quiet ...
s,
electric truck An electric truck is an electric vehicle powered by batteries designed to transport cargo, carry specialized payloads, or perform other utilitarian work. Electric trucks have serviced niche applications like milk floats, pushback tugs and f ...
s,
electric bus An electric bus is a bus that is propelled using electric motors as opposed to an internal combustion engine. Electric buses can store the needed electricity on-board, or be fed continuously from an external source. The majority of buses ...
es, neighborhood electric vehicles, and
plug-in hybrid A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) is a hybrid electric vehicle whose battery pack can be recharged by plugging a charging cable into an external electric power source, in addition to internally by its on-board internal combustion engin ...
s). There are two main types: AC charging stations and DC charging stations. Batteries can only be charged with
direct current Direct current (DC) is one-directional flow of electric charge. An electrochemical cell is a prime example of DC power. Direct current may flow through a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors, insulators, or ev ...
(DC) electric power, while most electricity is delivered from the power grid as
alternating current Alternating current (AC) is an electric current which periodically reverses direction and changes its magnitude continuously with time in contrast to direct current (DC) which flows only in one direction. Alternating current is the form in whic ...
(AC). For this reason, most electric vehicles have a built-in AC-to-DC converter, commonly known as the "onboard charger". At an AC charging station, AC power from the grid is supplied to this onboard charger, which produces DC power to charge the battery. DC chargers facilitate higher power charging (which requires much larger AC-to-DC converters) by building the converter into the charging station instead of the vehicle to avoid size and weight restrictions. The station then supplies DC power to the vehicle directly, bypassing the onboard converter. Most fully electric car models can accept both AC and DC power. Charging stations provide connectors that conform to a variety of international standards. DC charging stations are commonly equipped with multiple connectors to be able to charge a wide variety of vehicles that utilize competing standards. Public charging stations are typically found street-side or at retail shopping centers, government facilities, and other parking areas. Private charging stations are typically found at residences, workplaces, and hotels.


Standards

Multiple standards have been established for charging technology to enable interoperability across vendors. Standards are available for nomenclature, power, and connectors. Notably, Tesla has developed proprietary technology in these areas, and built its charging networking starting in 2012.


Nomenclature

In 2011, the European Automobile Manufacturers Association (ACEA) defined the following terms: * Socket outlet: the port on the electric vehicle supply equipment (EVSE) that supplies charging power to the vehicle * Plug: the end of the flexible cable that interfaces with the socket outlet on the EVSE. In North America, the socket outlet and plug are not used because the cable is permanently attached. * Cable: a flexible bundle of conductors that connects the EVSE with the electric vehicle * Connector: the end of the flexible cable that interfaces with the vehicle inlet * Vehicle inlet: the port on the electric vehicle that receives charging power The terms "electric vehicle connector" and "electric vehicle inlet" were previously defined in the same way under Article 625 of the United States
National Electric Code The National Electrical Code (NEC), or NFPA 70, is a regionally adoptable standard for the safe installation of electrical wiring and equipment in the United States. It is part of the National Fire Code series published by the National Fire Prote ...
(NEC) of 1999. NEC-1999 also defined the term "electric vehicle supply equipment" as the entire unit "installed specifically for the purpose of delivering energy from the premises wiring to the electric vehicle", including "conductors ... electric vehicle connectors, attachment plugs, and all other fittings, devices, power outlets, or apparatuses". Tesla, Inc. uses the term ''charging station'' as the location of a group of chargers, and the term ''connector'' for an individual charger.


Voltage and power


Early standards

The National Electric Transportation Infrastructure Working Council (IWC) was formed in 1991 by the
Electric Power Research Institute EPRI, is an American independent, nonprofit organization that conducts research and development related to the generation, delivery, and use of electricity to help address challenges in the energy industry, including reliability, efficiency, aff ...
with members drawn from automotive manufacturers and the electric utilities to define standards in the United States; early work by the IWC led to the definition of three levels of charging in the 1999
National Electric Code The National Electrical Code (NEC), or NFPA 70, is a regionally adoptable standard for the safe installation of electrical wiring and equipment in the United States. It is part of the National Fire Code series published by the National Fire Prote ...
(NEC) Handbook. Under the 1999 NEC, Level 1 charging equipment (as defined in the NEC handbook but not in the code) was connected to the grid through a standard
NEMA 5 NEMA connectors are power plugs and receptacles used for AC mains electricity in North America and other countries that use the standards set by the US National Electrical Manufacturers Association. NEMA wiring devices are made in current ra ...
-20R 3-prong electrical outlet with grounding, and a
ground-fault circuit interrupter A residual-current device (RCD), residual-current circuit breaker (RCCB) or ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) is an electrical safety device that quickly breaks an electrical circuit with leakage current to ground. It is to protect equip ...
was required within of the plug. The supply circuit required protection at 125% of the maximum rated current; for example, charging equipment rated at 16 
ampere The ampere (, ; symbol: A), often shortened to amp,SI supports only the use of symbols and deprecates the use of abbreviations for units. is the unit of electric current in the International System of Units (SI). One ampere is equal to elect ...
s ("amps" or "A") continuous current required a breaker sized to 20 A. Level 2 charging equipment (as defined in the handbook) was permanently wired and fastened at a fixed location under NEC-1999. It also required grounding and ground-fault protection; in addition, it required an interlock to prevent vehicle startup during charging and a safety breakaway for the cable and connector. A 40 A breaker (125% of continuous maximum supply current) was required to protect the branch circuit. For convenience and speedier charging, many early EVs preferred that owners and operators install Level 2 charging equipment, which was connected to the EV either through an inductive paddle (
Magne Charge Magne Charge (also known as Magne-Charge, MagneCharge and J1773) is a largely obsolete inductive charging system used to charge battery electric vehicles (BEVs). It was produced by General Motors subsidiary Delco Electronics for vehicles such as t ...
) or a conductive connector (
Avcon Avcon is a company that manufactures charging interfaces for battery electric vehicles (EV). The lettering convention is Avcon for the company and AVCON (capitals) for the EV charging connector. History Avcon belonged to the Maréchal Electric ...
). Level 3 charging equipment used an off-vehicle
rectifier A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC), which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows in only one direction. The reverse operation (converting DC to AC) is performed by an inve ...
to convert the input AC power to DC, which was then supplied to the vehicle. At the time it was written, the 1999 NEC handbook anticipated that Level 3 charging equipment would require utilities to upgrade their distribution systems and transformers.


SAE

The Society of Automotive Engineers (
SAE International SAE International, formerly named the Society of Automotive Engineers, is a United States-based, globally active professional association and standards developing organization for engineering professionals in various industries. SAE Internatio ...
) defines the general physical, electrical, communication, and performance requirements for EV charging systems used in North America, as part of standard
SAE J1772 SAE J1772, also known as a J plug or Type 1 connector after its international standard, IEC 62196 Type 1, is a North American standard for electrical connectors for electric vehicles maintained by SAE International under the formal title "SAE Su ...
, initially developed in 2001. SAE J1772 defines four levels of charging, two levels each for AC and DC supplies; the differences between levels are based upon the power distribution type, standards and maximum power.


= Alternating current (AC)

= AC charging stations connect the vehicle's onboard charging circuitry directly to the AC supply. * AC Level 1: Connects directly to a standard 120V North American outlet; capable of supplying 616A (0.71.92kilowatts or "kW") depending on the capacity of a dedicated circuit. * AC Level 2: Utilizes 240V (single phase) or 208V (three phase) power to supply between 6 and 80A (1.419.2kW). It provides a significant charging speed increase over AC Level 1 charging.


= Direct current (DC)

= Commonly, though incorrectly, called "Level 3" charging based on the older NEC-1999 definition, DC charging is categorized separately in the SAE standard. In DC fast-charging, grid AC power is passed through an AC-to-DC converter in the station before reaching the vehicle's battery, bypassing any AC-to-DC converter onboard the vehicle. * DC Level 1: Supplies a maximum of 80kW at 501000V. * DC Level 2: Supplies a maximum of 400kW at 501000V. Additional standards released by SAE for charging include
SAE J3068 SAE J3068 "Electric Vehicle Power Transfer System Using a Three-Phase Capable Coupler" is a North American recommended practice published and maintained by SAE International. J3068 defines electrical connectors and a control protocol for electric ...
(three-phase AC charging, using the
Type 2 connector The IEC 62196-2 Type 2 connector (often referred to as Mennekes for the company that designed it) is used for charging electric vehicles, mainly within Europe, as it was declared standard by the EU. Based on widespread red IEC 60309 three phase p ...
defined in
IEC 62196 IEC 62196 ''Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and vehicle inlets – Conductive charging of electric vehicles'' is a series of international standards that define requirements and tests for plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and veh ...
-2) and
SAE J3105 SAE J3105 is a recommended practice for automated connection devices (ACD) that mate chargers with battery electric buses and heavy-duty vehicles. The practice is maintained by the SAE International with the formal title "Electric Vehicle Power Tr ...
(automated connection of DC charging devices).


IEC

In 2003, the
International Electrotechnical Commission The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC; in French: ''Commission électrotechnique internationale'') is an international standards organization that prepares and publishes international standards for all electrical, electronic and ...
(IEC) adopted a majority of the
SAE J1772 SAE J1772, also known as a J plug or Type 1 connector after its international standard, IEC 62196 Type 1, is a North American standard for electrical connectors for electric vehicles maintained by SAE International under the formal title "SAE Su ...
standard under IEC 62196-1 for international implementation. The IEC alternatively defines charging in ''modes'' (
IEC 61851 IEC 61851 is an international standard for electric vehicle conductive charging systems, parts of which are currently still under development(written 2017). IEC 61851 is one of the International Electrotechnical Commission's group of standards fo ...
-1): * ''Mode 1'': slow charging from a regular electrical socket (single- or
three-phase Three-phase electric power (abbreviated 3φ) is a common type of alternating current used in electricity generation, transmission, and distribution. It is a type of polyphase system employing three wires (or four including an optional neutral ...
AC) * ''Mode 2'': slow charging from a regular AC socket but with some EV-specific protection arrangement (i.e. the Park & Charge or the PARVE systems) * ''Mode 3'': slow or fast AC charging using a specific EV multi-pin socket with control and protection functions (i.e.
SAE J1772 SAE J1772, also known as a J plug or Type 1 connector after its international standard, IEC 62196 Type 1, is a North American standard for electrical connectors for electric vehicles maintained by SAE International under the formal title "SAE Su ...
and
IEC 62196 IEC 62196 ''Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and vehicle inlets – Conductive charging of electric vehicles'' is a series of international standards that define requirements and tests for plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and veh ...
-2) * ''Mode 4'': DC fast charging using a specific charging interface (i.e.
IEC 62196 IEC 62196 ''Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and vehicle inlets – Conductive charging of electric vehicles'' is a series of international standards that define requirements and tests for plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and veh ...
-3, such as CHAdeMO) The connection between the electric grid and "charger" (electric vehicle supply equipment) is defined by three cases (IEC 61851-1): * ''Case A:'' any charger connected to the mains (the mains supply cable is usually attached to the charger) usually associated with modes 1 or 2. * ''Case B:'' an on-board vehicle charger with a mains supply cable that can be detached from both the supply and the vehicle – usually mode 3. * ''Case C:'' DC dedicated charging station. The mains supply cable may be permanently attached to the charge station as in mode 4.


Tesla NACS

The North American Charging Standard was developed by
Tesla, Inc Tesla, Inc. ( or ) is an American multinational automotive and clean energy company headquartered in Austin, Texas. Tesla designs and manufactures electric vehicles (electric cars and trucks), battery energy storage from home to grid ...
. for use in the company's vehicles, it remained a proprietary standard until 2022 when its specifications were published by Tesla. The connector is physically smaller than the J1172/CCS connector, and uses the same pins for both AC and DC charging functionality.
Aptera Motors Aptera Motors (formerly Accelerated Composites) is an American startup high-efficiency car company based in Carlsbad, California. The original company, Aptera Motors, Inc., was founded in 2005 and liquidated in 2011. In 2019, Aptera Motors w ...
has also adopted the connector standard in its vehicles. To meet
European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational union, supranational political union, political and economic union of Member state of the European Union, member states that are located primarily in Europe, Europe. The union has a total area of ...
(EU) requirements on recharging points, Tesla vehicles sold in the EU are equipped with an CCS Combo 2 port. Both the North America and the EU port take 480V DC fast charging through Tesla's network of
Supercharger In an internal combustion engine, a supercharger compresses the intake gas, forcing more air into the engine in order to produce more power for a given displacement. The current categorisation is that a supercharger is a form of forced indu ...
s, which variously use NACS and CCS charging connectors. Depending on the Supercharger version, power is supplied at 72, 150, or 250 kW, the first corresponding to DC Level 1 and the second and third corresponding to DC Level 2 of SAE J1772. As of Q4 2021, Tesla reported 3,476 supercharging locations worldwide and 31,498 supercharging chargers (about 9 chargers per location on average).


Future development

An extension to the CCS DC fast-charging standard for electric cars and light trucks is under development, which will provide higher power charging for large commercial vehicles ( Class 8, and possibly 6 and 7 as well, including school and transit buses). When the Charging Interface Initiative e. V. (CharIN) task force was formed in March 2018, the new standard being developed was originally called High Power Charging (HPC) for Commercial Vehicles (HPCCV), later renamed Megawatt Charging System (MCS). MCS is expected to operate in the range of 2001500V and 03000A for a theoretical maximum power of 4.5megawatts (MW). The proposal calls for MCS charge ports to be compatible with existing CCS and HPC chargers. The task force released aggregated requirements in February 2019, which called for maximum limits of 1000V DC (optionally, 1500V DC) and 3000A continuous rating. A connector design was selected in May 2019 and tested at the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) in the US specializes in the research and development of renewable energy, energy efficiency, energy systems integration, and sustainable transportation. NREL is a federally funded research an ...
(NREL) in September 2020. Thirteen manufacturers participated in the test, which checked the coupling and thermal performance of seven vehicle inlets and eleven charger connectors. The final connector requirements and specification was adopted in December 2021 as MCS connector version 3.2. With support from
Portland General Electric Portland General Electric (PGE) is a Fortune 1000 public utility based in Portland, Oregon. It distributes electricity to customers in parts of Multnomah, Clackamas, Marion, Yamhill, Washington, and Polk counties - 44% of the inhabitants ...
, on 21 April 2021 Daimler Trucks North America opened the "Electric Island", the first heavy-duty vehicle charging station, across the street from its headquarters in Portland, Oregon. The station is capable of charging eight vehicles simultaneously, and the charging bays are sized to accommodate tractor-trailers. In addition, the design is capable of accommodating >1MW chargers once they are available. A startup company, WattEV, announced plans in May 2021 to build a 40-stall truck stop/charging station in Bakersfield, California; at full capacity, it would provide a combined 25MW of charging power, partially drawn from an on-site solar array and battery storage.


Connectors

Common connectors include Type 1 (Yazaki), Type 2 (Mennekes), Type 3 (Scame), CCS Combo 1 and 2, CHAdeMO, and Tesla. Many standard plug types are defined in
IEC 62196 IEC 62196 ''Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and vehicle inlets – Conductive charging of electric vehicles'' is a series of international standards that define requirements and tests for plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and veh ...
-2 (for AC supplied power) and 62196-3 (for DC supplied power): * Type 1: single-phase AC vehicle coupler – SAE J1772/2009 automotive plug specifications * Type 2: single- and three-phase AC vehicle coupler –
VDE-AR-E 2623-2-2 IEC 62196 ''Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and vehicle inlets – Conductive charging of electric vehicles'' is a series of international standards that define requirements and tests for plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and veh ...
,
SAE J3068 SAE J3068 "Electric Vehicle Power Transfer System Using a Three-Phase Capable Coupler" is a North American recommended practice published and maintained by SAE International. J3068 defines electrical connectors and a control protocol for electric ...
, and GB/T 20234.2 plug specifications * Type 3: single- and three-phase AC vehicle coupler equipped with safety shutters – EV Plug Alliance proposal * Type 4: DC fast charge couplers ** Configuration AA: CHAdeMO ** Configuration BB: GB/T 20234.3 ** Configurations CC/DD: (reserved) ** Configuration EE: CCS Combo 1 ** Configuration FF: CCS Combo 2 ; Notes CCS DC charging requires Powerline Communications (PLC). Two connectors are added at the bottom of Type 1 or Type 2 vehicle inlets and charging plugs to supply DC current. These are commonly known as Combo 1 or Combo 2 connectors. The choice of style inlets is normally standardized on a per-country basis so that public chargers do not need to fit cables with both variants. Generally, North America uses Combo 1 style vehicle inlets, while most of the rest of the world uses Combo 2. The CHAdeMO standard is favored by
Nissan , trading as Nissan Motor Corporation and often shortened to Nissan, is a Japanese multinational automobile manufacturer headquartered in Nishi-ku, Yokohama, Japan. The company sells its vehicles under the Nissan, Infiniti, and Datsun bra ...
,
Mitsubishi The is a group of autonomous Japanese multinational companies in a variety of industries. Founded by Yatarō Iwasaki in 1870, the Mitsubishi Group historically descended from the Mitsubishi zaibatsu, a unified company which existed from 1870 ...
, and
Toyota is a Japanese multinational automotive manufacturer headquartered in Toyota City, Aichi, Japan. It was founded by Kiichiro Toyoda and incorporated on . Toyota is one of the largest automobile manufacturers in the world, producing about 10 ...
, while the
SAE J1772 SAE J1772, also known as a J plug or Type 1 connector after its international standard, IEC 62196 Type 1, is a North American standard for electrical connectors for electric vehicles maintained by SAE International under the formal title "SAE Su ...
Combo standard is backed by GM,
Ford Ford commonly refers to: * Ford Motor Company, an automobile manufacturer founded by Henry Ford * Ford (crossing), a shallow crossing on a river Ford may also refer to: Ford Motor Company * Henry Ford, founder of the Ford Motor Company * Ford F ...
,
Volkswagen Volkswagen (),English: , . abbreviated as VW (), is a German Automotive industry, motor vehicle manufacturer headquartered in Wolfsburg, Lower Saxony, Germany. Founded in 1937 by the German Labour Front under the Nazi Party and revived into a ...
, BMW, and
Hyundai Hyundai is a South Korean industrial conglomerate (" chaebol"), which was restructured into the following groups: * Hyundai Group, parts of the former conglomerate which have not been divested ** Hyundai Mobis, Korean car parts company ** Hyundai A ...
. Both systems charge to 80% in approximately 20 minutes, but the two systems are completely incompatible. Richard Martin, editorial director for clean technology marketing and consultant firm Navigant Research, stated:
The broader conflict between the CHAdeMO and SAE Combo connectors, we see that as a hindrance to the market over the next several years that needs to be worked out.


Historical connectors

In the United States, many of the EVs first marketed in the late 1990s and early 2000s such as the GM EV1, Ford Ranger EV, and
Chevrolet S-10 EV The Chevrolet S-10 Electric was an American electric-powered vehicle built by Chevrolet. It was introduced in 1997, becoming the world's first electric pickup truck, updated in 1998, and then discontinued. It was an OEM BEV variant of Chevrole ...
preferred the use of Level 2 (single-phase AC) EVSE, as defined under NEC-1999, to maintain acceptable charging speed. These EVSEs were fitted with either an inductive connector (Magne Charge) or a conductive connector (generally AVCON). Proponents of the inductive system were GM, Nissan, and Toyota; DaimlerChrysler, Ford, and Honda backed the conductive system. Magne Charge paddles were available in two different sizes: an older, larger paddle (used for the EV1 and S-10 EV) and a newer, smaller paddle (used for the first-generation Toyota RAV4 EV, but backwards compatible with large-paddle vehicles through an adapter). The larger paddle (introduced in 1994) was required to accommodate a liquid-cooled vehicle inlet charge port; the smaller paddle (introduced in 2000) interfaced with an air-cooled inlet instead. SAE J1773, which described the technical requirements for inductive paddle coupling, was first issued in January 1995, with another revision issued in November 1999. The influential
California Air Resources Board The California Air Resources Board (CARB or ARB) is the "clean air agency" of the government of California. Established in 1967 when then-governor Ronald Reagan signed the Mulford-Carrell Act, combining the Bureau of Air Sanitation and the Moto ...
adopted the conductive connector as its standard on 28 June 2001, based on lower costs and durability, and the Magne Charge paddle was discontinued by the following March. Three conductive connectors existed at the time, named according to their manufacturers: Avcon (aka butt-and-pin, used by Ford, Solectria, and Honda); Yazaki (aka pin-and-sleeve, on the RAV4 EV); and ODU (used by DaimlerChrysler). The Avcon butt-and-pin connector supported Level 2 and Level 3 (DC) charging and was described in the appendix of the first version (1996) of the SAE J1772 recommended practice; the 2001 version moved the connector description into the body of the practice, making it the de facto standard for the United States.  IWC recommended the Avcon butt connector for North America, based on environmental and durability testing. As implemented, the Avcon connector used four contacts for Level 2 (L1, L2, Pilot, Ground) and added five more (three for serial communications, and two for DC power) for Level 3 (L1, L2, Pilot, Com1, Com2, Ground, Clean Data ground, DC+, DC-). By 2009, J1772 had instead adopted the round pin-and-sleeve (Yazaki) connector as its standard implementation, and the rectangular Avcon butt connector was rendered obsolete.


Charging time

File:2014 BYD E6.jpg, BYD e6. Able to recharge the battery in 15 minutes to 80% File:BSVAG Solaris Urbino 12 electric "EMIL" Hauptbahnhof.jpg,
Solaris Urbino Solaris Urbino is a series of low-floor buses and low-entry doorway intercity buses, powered by diesel drive engines and alternative fuel (CNG, gas and biogas, hybrid and electric), produced by the Polish company Solaris Bus & Coach in Bo ...
12 electric,
battery electric bus A battery electric bus is an electric bus that is driven by an electric motor and obtains energy from on-board batteries. Many trolleybuses use batteries as an auxiliary or emergency power source. In 2018, the National Renewable Energy Laborator ...
, inductive charging station
Charging time basically depends on the battery's capacity, power density, and charging power. The larger the capacity, the more charge the battery can hold (analogous to the size of a fuel tank). Higher power density allows the battery to accept more charge/unit time (the size of the tank opening). Higher charging power supplies more energy per unit time (analogous to a pump's flow rate). An important downside of charging at fast speeds is that it also stresses the
mains electricity Mains electricity or utility power, power grid, domestic power, and wall power, or in some parts of Canada as hydro, is a general-purpose alternating-current (AC) electric power supply. It is the form of electrical power that is delivered to h ...
grid more.
California Air Resources Board The California Air Resources Board (CARB or ARB) is the "clean air agency" of the government of California. Established in 1967 when then-governor Ronald Reagan signed the Mulford-Carrell Act, combining the Bureau of Air Sanitation and the Moto ...
specified a target minimum range of 150 miles to qualify as a
zero-emission vehicle A zero-emission vehicle, or ZEV, is a vehicle that does not emit exhaust gas or other pollutants from the onboard source of power. The California definition also adds that this includes under any and all possible operational modes and conditions ...
, and further specified that the vehicle should allow for fast-charging. Charge time can be calculated as: \text = \frac The effective charging power can be lower than the maximum charging power due to limitations of the battery or battery management system, charging losses (which can be as high as 25%), and vary over time due to charging limits applied by a
charge controller A charge controller, charge regulator or battery regulator limits the rate at which electric current is added to or drawn from electric batteries to protect against electrical overload, overcharging, and may protect against overvoltage.
.


Battery capacity

The usable battery capacity of a first-generation electric vehicle, such as the original Nissan Leaf, was about 20
kilowatt-hour A kilowatt-hour ( unit symbol: kW⋅h or kW h; commonly written as kWh) is a unit of energy: one kilowatt of power for one hour. In terms of SI derived units with special names, it equals 3.6 megajoules (MJ). Kilowatt-hours are a common b ...
s (kWh), giving it a range of about . Tesla was the first company to introduce longer-range vehicles, initially releasing their Model S with battery capacities of 40kWh, 60kWh and 85kWh, with the latter lasting for about . Current plug-in hybrid vehicles typically have an electric range of 15 to 60 miles.


AC to DC conversion

Batteries are charged with DC power. To charge from the AC power supplied by the electrical grid, EVs have a small AC-to-DC converter built into the vehicle. The charging cable supplies AC power directly from the grid, and the vehicle converts this power to DC internally and charges its battery. The built-in converters on most EVs typically support charging speeds up to 6–7kW, sufficient for overnight charging. This is known as "AC charging". To facilitate rapid recharging of EVs, much higher power (50–100+kW) is necessary. This requires a much larger AC-to-DC converter which is not practical to integrate into the vehicle. Instead, the AC-to-DC conversion is performed by the charging station, and DC power is supplied to the vehicle directly, bypassing the built-in converter. This is known as DC fast charging.


Safety

File:ShanghaiExpo2010 Shuttle Bus.jpg, A Sunwin electric bus in Shanghai at a charging station File:TOSA Aeroport rail avec tête.JPG, A
battery electric bus A battery electric bus is an electric bus that is driven by an electric motor and obtains energy from on-board batteries. Many trolleybuses use batteries as an auxiliary or emergency power source. In 2018, the National Renewable Energy Laborator ...
charging station in
Geneva Geneva ( ; french: Genève ) frp, Genèva ; german: link=no, Genf ; it, Ginevra ; rm, Genevra is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and the most populous city of Romandy, the French-speaking part of Switzerland. Situa ...
, Switzerland
Charging stations are usually accessible to multiple electric vehicles and are equipped with current or connection sensing mechanisms to disconnect the power when the EV is not charging. The two main types of safety sensors: *
Current sensor In electrical engineering, current sensing is any one of several techniques used to measure electric current. The measurement of current ranges from picoamps to tens of thousands of amperes. The selection of a current sensing method depends on r ...
s monitor power consumed, and maintain the connection only while demand is within a predetermined range. * Sensor wires provide a
feedback Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop. The system can then be said to ''feed back'' into itself. The notion of cause-and-effect has to be handled ...
signal such as specified by the
SAE J1772 SAE J1772, also known as a J plug or Type 1 connector after its international standard, IEC 62196 Type 1, is a North American standard for electrical connectors for electric vehicles maintained by SAE International under the formal title "SAE Su ...
and
IEC 62196 IEC 62196 ''Plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and vehicle inlets – Conductive charging of electric vehicles'' is a series of international standards that define requirements and tests for plugs, socket-outlets, vehicle connectors and veh ...
schemes that require special (multi-pin) power plug fittings. Sensor wires react more quickly, have fewer parts to fail, and are possibly less expensive to design and implement. Current sensors however can use standard connectors and can allow suppliers to monitor or charge for the electricity actually consumed.


Public charging stations

Longer drives require a network of public charging stations. In addition, they are essential for vehicles that lack access to a home charging station, as is common in multi-family housing. Costs vary greatly by country, power supplier, and power source. Some services charge by the minute, while others charge by the amount of energy received (measured in kilowatt-hours). Charging stations may not need much new infrastructure in developed countries, less than delivering a new fuel over a new network. The stations can leverage the existing ubiquitous
electrical grid An electrical grid is an interconnected network for electricity delivery from producers to consumers. Electrical grids vary in size and can cover whole countries or continents. It consists of:Kaplan, S. M. (2009). Smart Grid. Electrical Power ...
. Charging stations are offered by public authorities, commercial enterprises, and some major employers to address a range of barriers. Options include simple charging posts for roadside use, charging cabinets for covered parking places, and fully automated charging stations integrated with power distribution equipment. , around 50,000 non-residential charging points were deployed in the U.S., Europe, Japan and China. ''See pp. 14–15''. , some 3,869 CHAdeMO quick chargers were deployed, with 1,978 in Japan, 1,181 in Europe and 686 in the United States, and 24 in other countries.


Asia/Pacific

, Japan had 1,381 public DC fast-charging stations, the largest deployment of fast chargers in the world, but only around 300 AC chargers. , China had around 800 public slow charging points, and no fast charging stations. , the largest public charging networks in Australia were in the capital cities of
Perth Perth is the capital and largest city of the Australian state of Western Australia. It is the fourth most populous city in Australia and Oceania, with a population of 2.1 million (80% of the state) living in Greater Perth in 2020. Perth is ...
and
Melbourne Melbourne ( ; Boonwurrung/ Woiwurrung: ''Narrm'' or ''Naarm'') is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second-most populous city in both Australia and Oceania. Its name generally refers to a metro ...
, with around 30 stations (7kW AC) established in both cities – smaller networks exist in other capital cities. File:Seed & Greet Ladepark Kreuz-Hilden.jpg, Public charging park in Germany File:BetterPlaceEVsCharging.JPG, Prototype modified
Renault Laguna The Renault Laguna is a large family car that was manufactured and marketed by Renault for 21 years in three body styles: hatchback, coupé, and estate. The first generation Laguna was launched in 1994, the second generation was introduced in 200 ...
EVs charging at Project Better Place charging stations in
Ramat Hasharon Ramat HaSharon ( he, רָמַת הַשָּׁרוֹן, ''lit.'' '' Sharon Heights'', ar, رمات هشارون) is a city located on Israel's central coastal strip in the south of the Sharon region, bordering Tel Aviv to the south, Hod HaSharon ...
, Israel, north of
Tel Aviv Tel Aviv-Yafo ( he, תֵּל־אָבִיב-יָפוֹ, translit=Tēl-ʾĀvīv-Yāfō ; ar, تَلّ أَبِيب – يَافَا, translit=Tall ʾAbīb-Yāfā, links=no), often referred to as just Tel Aviv, is the most populous city in the G ...
File:Reva charging.jpg, REVAi/G-Wiz i charging from an on-street station in London File:Electric car charge point.jpg, Car charging point in Scotland File:Aral Pulse Ladestationen.jpg, Aral Pulse charging stations in front of a Aral-branded BP gas station in
Braunschweig Braunschweig () or Brunswick ( , from Low German ''Brunswiek'' , Braunschweig dialect: ''Bronswiek'') is a city in Lower Saxony, Germany, north of the Harz Mountains at the farthest navigable point of the river Oker, which connects it to the ...
, Germany


Europe

, Estonia was the only country that had completed the deployment of an EV charging network with nationwide coverage, with 165 fast chargers available along highways at a maximum distance of between , and a higher density in urban areas. , about 15,000 charging stations had been installed in Europe. , Norway had 4,029 charging points and 127 DC fast-charging stations. As part of its commitment to environmental sustainability, the Dutch government initiated a plan to establish over 200 fast ( DC) charging stations across the country by 2015. The rollout will be undertaken by ABB and Dutch startup
Fastned Fastned is a Dutch company that owns and operates a network of over 200 EV charging stations in the Netherlands, Germany, the United Kingdom, Belgium, and Switzerland. A large majority of its stations are located at Dutch highway rest areas. Fa ...
, aiming to provide at least one station every for the Netherlands' 16 million residents. In addition to that, the E-laad foundation installed about 3000 public (slow) charge points since 2009. Compared to other markets, such as China, the European electric car market has developed slowly. This, together with the lack of charging stations, has reduced the number of electric models available in Europe. In 2018 and 2019 the European Investment Bank (EIB) signed several projects with companies like Allego, Greenway, BeCharge and Enel X. The EIB loans will support the deployment of the charging station infrastructure with a total of €200 million. The UK government declared that it will ban the selling of new petrol and diesel vehicles by 2035 for a complete shift towards electric charging vehicles.


North America

, 800,000 electric vehicles and 18,000 charging stations operated in the United States, up from 5,678 public charging stations and 16,256 public charging points in 2013. By July 2020, Tesla had installed 1,971 stations (17,467 plugs). As of August 2019, in the U.S., there are 2,140 CHAdeMO charging stations (3,010 plugs), 1,888 SAE CCS1 charging stations (3,525 plugs), and 678 Tesla Supercharger stations (6,340 plugs), according to the U.S. Department of Energy's Alternative Fuels Data Center. Colder areas such as Finland, some northern US states and Canada have some infrastructure for public power receptacles provided primarily for use by
block heater A block heater is used in cold climates to warm an engine prior to starting. They are mostly used for car engines; however they have also been used in aircraft engines. The most common design of block heater is an electrical heating element embed ...
s. Although their
circuit breaker A circuit breaker is an electrical safety device designed to protect an electrical circuit from damage caused by an overcurrent or short circuit. Its basic function is to interrupt current flow to protect equipment and to prevent the ris ...
s prevent large current draws for other uses, they can be used to recharge electric vehicles, albeit slowly. In public lots, some such outlets are turned on only when the temperature falls below −20°C, further limiting their value. In 2017, Tesla gave the owners of its Model S and Model X cars 400kWh of
Supercharger In an internal combustion engine, a supercharger compresses the intake gas, forcing more air into the engine in order to produce more power for a given displacement. The current categorisation is that a supercharger is a form of forced indu ...
credit, although this varied over time. The price ranges from $0.060.26/kWh in the United States. Tesla Superchargers are usable only by Tesla vehicles. Other charging networks are available for all electric vehicles. The Blink network has both AC and DC charging stations and charges separate prices for members and non-members. Their prices range from $0.390.69/kWh for members and $0.490.79/kWh for non-members, depending on location. The
ChargePoint ChargePoint (formerly Coulomb Technologies) is an American electric vehicle infrastructure company based in Campbell, California. ChargePoint operates the largest online network of independently owned EV charging stations operating in 14 count ...
network has free chargers and paid chargers that drivers activate with a free membership card. Prices are based on local rates. Other networks may accept cash or a credit card. In June 2022, President Biden announced a plan for a standardized nationwide network of 500,000 electric vehicle charging stations by 2030 that will be agnostic to EV brands, charging companies, or location, in the United States. As of November 2022, it has 48,146 charging stations including the level 1, level 2 and DC fast charing stations across the United States. Compared to the number published in 2018, it almost has tripled.


Africa

South African based ElectroSA and automobile manufacturers including BMW,
Nissan , trading as Nissan Motor Corporation and often shortened to Nissan, is a Japanese multinational automobile manufacturer headquartered in Nishi-ku, Yokohama, Japan. The company sells its vehicles under the Nissan, Infiniti, and Datsun bra ...
and
Jaguar The jaguar (''Panthera onca'') is a large cat species and the only living member of the genus ''Panthera'' native to the Americas. With a body length of up to and a weight of up to , it is the largest cat species in the Americas and the th ...
have so far been able to install 80 electric car charges nationwide.


South America

In April 2017 YPF, the state-owned oil company of
Argentina Argentina (), officially the Argentine Republic ( es, link=no, República Argentina), is a country in the southern half of South America. Argentina covers an area of , making it the List of South American countries by area, second-largest ...
, reported that it will install 220 fast-load stations for electric vehicles in 110 of its service stations in the national territory.


Projects

Electric car manufacturers, charging infrastructure providers, and regional governments have entered into agreements and ventures to promote and provide electric vehicle networks of public charging stations. The EV Plug Alliance is an association of 21 European manufacturers that proposed an
IEC The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC; in French: ''Commission électrotechnique internationale'') is an international standards organization that prepares and publishes international standards for all electrical, electronic and r ...
norm and a European standard for sockets and plugs. Members (
Schneider Electric Schneider Electric SE is a French multinational company that specializes in digital automation and energy management. It addresses homes, buildings, data centers, infrastructure and industries, by combining energy technologies, real-time automatio ...
, Legrand, Scame, Nexans, etc.) claimed that the system was safer because they use shutters. Prior consensus was that the IEC 62196 and IEC 61851-1 standards have already established safety by making parts non-live when touchable.


Battery swap

A battery swapping (or switching) station allow vehicles to exchange a discharged battery pack for a charged one, eliminating the charge interval. Battery swapping is common in electric
forklift A forklift (also called lift truck, jitney, hi-lo, fork truck, fork hoist, and forklift truck) is a powered industrial truck used to lift and move materials over short distances. The forklift was developed in the early 20th century by various ...
applications.


History

The concept of an exchangeable battery service was proposed as early as 1896. It was first offered between 1910 and 1924, by
Hartford Electric Light Company The Hartford Electric Light Company (HELCO) is a defunct electrical company that was located on Pearl Street in Hartford, Connecticut. It was merged with the Connecticut Power Company in 1958 and later these became Connecticut Light & Power. It ...
, through the GeVeCo battery service, serving electric trucks. The vehicle owner purchased the vehicle, without a battery, from General Vehicle Company (GeVeCo), part-owned by
General Electric General Electric Company (GE) is an American multinational conglomerate founded in 1892, and incorporated in New York state and headquartered in Boston. The company operated in sectors including healthcare, aviation, power, renewable ene ...
. The power was purchased from Hartford Electric in the form of an exchangeable battery. Both vehicles and batteries were designed to facilitate a fast exchange. The owner paid a variable per-mile charge and a monthly service fee to cover truck maintenance and storage. These vehicles covered more than 6 million miles. Beginning in 1917, a similar service operated in Chicago for owners of Milburn Electric cars. A rapid battery replacement system was implemented to service 50 electric buses at the
2008 Summer Olympics The 2008 Summer Olympics (), officially the Games of the XXIX Olympiad () and also known as Beijing 2008 (), were an international multisport event held from 8 to 24 August 2008, in Beijing, China. A total of 10,942 athletes from 204 Nat ...
. Better Place, Tesla, and
Mitsubishi Heavy Industries is a Japanese multinational engineering, electrical equipment and electronics corporation headquartered in Tokyo, Japan. MHI is one of the core companies of the Mitsubishi Group and its automobile division is the predecessor of Mitsubishi ...
considered battery switch approaches. One complicating factor was that the approach requires vehicle design modifications. In 2012, Tesla started building a proprietary fast-charging
Tesla Supercharger A Tesla Supercharger is a 480-volt direct current fast-charging technology built by American vehicle manufacturer Tesla, Inc. for electric cars. The Supercharger network was introduced on September 24, 2012, with six Supercharger stations ...
network. In 2013, Tesla announced it would also support battery pack swaps, but that program was shut down.


Benefits

The following benefits were claimed for battery swapping: * "Refueling" in under five minutes. * Automation: The driver can stay in the car while the battery is swapped. * Switch company subsidies could reduce prices without involving vehicle owners. * Spare batteries could participate in vehicle to grid energy services.


Providers

The Better Place network was the first modern attempt at the battery switching model. The
Renault Fluence Z.E. The Renault Fluence Z.E. is an electric version of the Renault Fluence compact sedan, part of the Renault Z.E. program of battery electric vehicles. It was unveiled by Renault at the 2009 Frankfurt Motor Show. The Fluence Z.E. is outfitted with a ...
was the first car enabled to adopt the approach and was offered in Israel and Denmark. Better Place launched its first battery-swapping station in Israel, in
Kiryat Ekron Kiryat Ekron or Qiryath Eqron ( he, קִרְיַת עֶקְרוֹן) is a town located on the coastal plain in the Central District of Israel. Located immediately south of the city of Rehovot on Highway 411 next to the Bilu Junction, in it had a ...
, near
Rehovot Rehovot ( he, רְחוֹבוֹת ''Rəḥōvōt'', ar, رحوڤوت ''Reḥūfūt'') is a city in the Central District of Israel, about south of Tel Aviv. In it had a population of . Etymology Israel Belkind, founder of the Bilu movement, ...
in March 2011. The exchange process took five minutes. Better Place filed for bankruptcy in Israel in May 2013. In June 2013, Tesla announced its plan to offer battery swapping. Tesla showed that a battery swap with the Model S took just over 90 seconds.
Elon Musk Elon Reeve Musk ( ; born June 28, 1971) is a business magnate and investor. He is the founder, CEO and chief engineer of SpaceX; angel investor, CEO and product architect of Tesla, Inc.; owner and CEO of Twitter, Inc.; founder of The B ...
said the service would be offered at around to at June 2013 prices. The vehicle purchase included one battery pack. After a swap, the owner could later return and receive their battery pack fully charged. A second option would be to keep the swapped battery and receive/pay the difference in value between the original and the replacement. Pricing was not announced. In 2015 the company abandoned the idea for lack of customer interest. By 2022, Chinese luxury carmaker
Nio are two wrathful and muscular guardians of the Buddha standing today at the entrance of many Buddhist temples in East Asian Buddhism in the form of frightening wrestler-like statues. They are dharmapala manifestations of the bodhisattva Vajrap ...
had built more than 900 battery swap stations across China and Europe, up from 131 in 2020.


Sites

Charging stations can be placed wherever electric power and adequate parking are available. Private locations include residences, workplaces, and hotels. Residences are by far the most common charging location. Residential charging stations typically lack user authentication and separate metering, and may require a dedicated circuit. Many vehicles being charged at residences simply use a cable that plugs into standard household electrical outlet. These cables may be wall mounted. Public stations have been sited along highways, in shopping centers, hotels, government facilities and at workplaces. Some gas stations offer EV charging stations. Some charging stations have been criticized as inaccessible, hard to find, out of order, and slow, thus slowing EV adoption. Public charge stations may charge a fee or offer free service based on government or corporate promotions. Charge rates vary from residential rates for electricity to many times higher, the premium is usually for the convenience of faster charging. Vehicles can typically be charged without the owner present, allowing the owner to partake in other activities. Sites include malls, freeway rest areas, transit stations, and government offices. Typically, AC Type 1/ Type 2 plugs are used. Mobile charging involves another vehicle that brings the charge station to the electric vehicle; the power is supplied via a fuel generator (typically gasoline or diesel), or a large battery. Wireless charging uses
inductive charging Inductive charging (also known as wireless charging or cordless charging) is a type of wireless power transfer. It uses electromagnetic induction to provide electricity to portable devices. Inductive charging is also used in vehicles, power too ...
mats that charge without a wired connection and can be embedded in parking stalls or even on roadways. An offshore electricity recharging system named Stillstrom, to be launched by Danish shipping firm Maersk Supply Service, will give ships access to renewable energy while at sea. Connecting ships to electricity generated by offshore wind farms, Stillstrom is designed to cut
emissions Emission may refer to: Chemical products * Emission of air pollutants, notably: **Flue gas, gas exiting to the atmosphere via a flue ** Exhaust gas, flue gas generated by fuel combustion ** Emission of greenhouse gases, which absorb and emit radi ...
from idling ships.


Related technologies


Smart grid

A
smart grid A smart grid is an electrical grid which includes a variety of operation and energy measures including: *Advanced metering infrastructure (of which smart meters are a generic name for any utility side device even if it is more capable e.g. a f ...
is one that can adapt to changing conditions by limiting service or adjusting prices. Some charging stations can communicate with the grid and activate charging when conditions are optimal, such as when prices are relatively low. Some vehicles allow the operator to control recharging.
Vehicle-to-grid Vehicle-to-grid (V2G), also known as Vehicle-to-home (V2H) or Vehicle-to-load (V2L) describes a system in which plug-in electric vehicles (PEV) sell demand response services to the grid. Demand services are either delivering electricity or by red ...
scenarios allow the vehicle battery to supply the grid during periods of peak demand. This requires communication between the grid, charging station, and vehicle. SAE International is developing related standards. These include SAE J2847/1. ISO and IEC are developing similar standards known as ISO/IEC 15118, which also provide protocols for automatic payment.


Renewable energy

Charging stations are typically connected to the grid, which in most jurisdictions relies on
fossil-fuel power station A fossil fuel power station is a thermal power station which burns a fossil fuel, such as coal or natural gas, to produce electricity. Fossil fuel power stations have machinery to convert the heat energy of combustion into mechanical energy, wh ...
s. However,
renewable energy Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale. It includes sources such as sunlight, wind, the movement of water, and geothermal heat. Although most renewable energy ...
may be used to reduce the use of grid energy. Nidec Industrial Solutions has a system that can be powered by either the grid or renewable energy sources like PV. In 2009,
SolarCity SolarCity Corporation was a publicly traded company headquartered in Fremont, California that sold and installed solar energy generation systems as well as other related products and services to residential, commercial, and industrial customers ...
marketed its solar energy systems for charging installations. The company announced a single demonstration station in partnership with
Rabobank Rabobank (; full name: ''Coöperatieve Rabobank U.A.'') is a Dutch multinational banking and financial services company headquartered in Utrecht, Netherlands. The group comprises 89 local Dutch Rabobanks (2019), a central organisation (Raboban ...
on
Highway 101 Highway 101 was an American country music band founded in 1986 in Los Angeles, California. The initial lineup consisted of Paulette Carlson (lead vocals), Jack Daniels (guitar), Curtis Stone (bass guitar, vocals), and Scott "Cactus" Moser (drum ...
between San Francisco and Los Angeles. The E-Move Charging Station is equipped with eight monocrystalline solar panels, which can supply 1.76kW of solar power. In 2012, Urban Green Energy introduced the world's first wind-powered electric vehicle charging station, the Sanya SkyPump. The design features a 4kW vertical-axis wind turbine paired with a GE WattStation. In 2021 Nova Innovation introduced the world's first direct from tidal power EV charge station
World's first tidal energy powered EV charger launched in Shetland


See also

*
AC adapter An AC adapter or AC/DC adapter is a type of external power supply, often enclosed in a case similar to an AC plug. Other common names include wall wart, power brick, wall charger, and power adapter. Adapters for battery-powered equipment may ...
*
Battery charger A battery charger, recharger, or simply charger is a device that stores energy in a battery by running an electric current through it. The charging protocol (how much voltage or current for how long, and what to do when charging is complete) depe ...
*
Direct coupling In electronics, direct coupling or DC coupling (also called conductive coupling and galvanic coupling) is the transfer of electrical energy by means of physical contact via a conductive medium, in contrast to inductive coupling and capacitive coup ...
*
Electric vehicle battery An electric vehicle battery (EVB, also known as a traction battery) is a rechargeable battery used to power the electric motors of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) or hybrid electric vehicle (HEV). Typically lithium-ion batteries, they are sp ...
* Electric vehicle network *
Inductive charging Inductive charging (also known as wireless charging or cordless charging) is a type of wireless power transfer. It uses electromagnetic induction to provide electricity to portable devices. Inductive charging is also used in vehicles, power too ...
* Ground-level power supply *
ISO 15118 ISO 15118 ''Road vehicles -- Vehicle to grid communication interface'' is a proposed international standard defining a vehicle to grid (V2G) communication interface for bi-directional charging/discharging of electric vehicles. The standard provid ...
*
List of energy storage projects This is a list of energy storage power plants worldwide, other than pumped hydro storage. Many individual energy storage plants augment electrical grids by capturing excess electrical energy during periods of low demand and storing it in o ...
* Megawatt Charging System *
OpenEVSE OpenEVSE is an Arduino-based charging station created by Christopher Howell and Sam C. Lin. The charger is composed of open-source software and hardware which can be made DIY. History The project started in February 2011 with a simple experiment ...
* Park & Charge *
Solar vehicle A solar vehicle or solar electric vehicle is an electric vehicle powered completely or significantly by direct solar energy. Usually, photovoltaic (PV) cells contained in solar panels convert the sun's energy directly into electric energy. T ...
*
Vehicle-to-grid Vehicle-to-grid (V2G), also known as Vehicle-to-home (V2H) or Vehicle-to-load (V2L) describes a system in which plug-in electric vehicles (PEV) sell demand response services to the grid. Demand services are either delivering electricity or by red ...
Commercial projects: *
Battery electric multiple unit A battery electric multiple unit (BEMU), battery electric railcar or accumulator railcar is an electrically driven multiple unit or railcar whose energy is derived from rechargeable batteries driving the traction motors. Prime advantages of these ...
*
ECOtality ECOtality, Inc., headquartered in San Francisco, California, was an electric transportation and storage technologies company. ECOtality was the parent company of ECOtality North America, Innergy Power Corporation, Fuel Cell Store and ECOtality Au ...
* GridPoint * IAV *
Magne Charge Magne Charge (also known as Magne-Charge, MagneCharge and J1773) is a largely obsolete inductive charging system used to charge battery electric vehicles (BEVs). It was produced by General Motors subsidiary Delco Electronics for vehicles such as t ...
* Plugless Power *
Solar Roadways Solar Roadways Incorporated is an American company based in Sandpoint, Idaho, aiming to develop solar-powered road panels to form a smart highway. Their proof-of-concept technology is a hexagonal road panel that has a glass driving surface wit ...


References

{{Authority control Electric vehicles