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The Chalukya dynasty () was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of
southern Southern may refer to: Businesses * China Southern Airlines, airline based in Guangzhou, China * Southern Airways, defunct US airline * Southern Air, air cargo transportation company based in Norwalk, Connecticut, US * Southern Airways Express, M ...
and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern
Badami Badami, formerly known as Vatapi, is a town and headquarters of a taluk by the same name, in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India. It was the regal capital of the Badami Chalukyas from CE 540 to 757. It is famous for its rock cut monuments ...
) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Eastern Chalukyas became an independent kingdom in the eastern Deccan. They ruled from
Vengi Vengi (or Venginadu) is a delta region spread over the Krishna and Godavari River, (also called Godavari and Krishna districts), the region is also known as Godavari Delta, that used to house world famous diamond mines in the Medieval period ...
until about the 11th century. In the western Deccan, the rise of the
Rashtrakutas Rashtrakuta ( IAST: ') (r. 753-982 CE) was a royal Indian dynasty ruling large parts of the Indian subcontinent between the sixth and 10th centuries. The earliest known Rashtrakuta inscription is a 7th-century copper plate grant detailing the ...
in the middle of the 8th century eclipsed the Chalukyas of Badami before being revived by their descendants, the Western Chalukyas, in the late 10th century. These Western Chalukyas ruled from Kalyani (modern Basavakalyan) until the end of the 12th century. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an important milestone in the history of
South India South India, also known as Dakshina Bharata or Peninsular India, consists of the peninsular southern part of India. It encompasses the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Telangana, as well as the union terr ...
and a
golden age The term Golden Age comes from Greek mythology, particularly the '' Works and Days'' of Hesiod, and is part of the description of temporal decline of the state of peoples through five Ages, Gold being the first and the one during which the G ...
in the history of
Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO 15919, ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reor ...
. The political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the
Kaveri The Kaveri (also known as Cauvery, the anglicized name) is one of the major Indian rivers flowing through the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The Kaveri river rises at Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri range in the Western Ghats, Kodagu d ...
and the Narmada rivers. The rise of this empire saw the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan architecture". Kannada literature, which had enjoyed royal support in the 9th century Rashtrakuta court found eager patronage from the Western Chalukyas in the
Jain Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle being ...
and Veerashaiva traditions. The 11th century saw the patronage of Telugu literature under the Eastern Chalukyas.


Origins


Natives of Karnataka

While opinions vary regarding the early origins of the Chalukyas, the consensus among noted historians such as John Keay, D.C. Sircar, Hans Raj, S. Sen,
Kamath Kamat is a surname from Goa, Maharashtra and coastal Karnataka in India. It is found among Hindus of the Goud Saraswat Brahmin, Saraswat and Rajapur Saraswat Brahmin communities following Madhva Sampradaya of either Gokarna Matha or Kashi ...
, K. V. Ramesh and Karmarkar is that the founders of the empire at Badami were native to the modern
Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO 15919, ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reor ...
region.N. Laxminarayana Rao and Dr. S. C. Nandinath have claimed the Chalukyas were '' Kannadigas'' (Kannada speakers) and very much the natives of Karnataka (Kamath 2001, p. 57)The Chalukyas were Kannadigas (D.C. Sircar in Mahajan V.D., 1960, Reprint 2007, Ancient India, Chand and Company, New Delhi, p. 690, )Natives of Karnataka (Hans Raj, 2007, Advanced history of India: From earliest times to present times, Part-1, Surgeet publications, New Delhi, p. 339)The Chalukyas hailed from Karnataka (John Keay, 2000, p. 168)Quote:"They belonged to Karnataka country and their mother tongue was Kannada" (Sen 1999, p. 360)The Chalukyas of Badami seem to be of indigenous origin (Kamath 2001, p. 58)Jayasimha and Ranaraga, the first members of the Chalukya family were possibly employees of the Kadambas in the northern part of the Kadamba Kingdom (Fleet
n ''Kanarese Dynasties'', p. 343 N, or n, is the fourteenth letter in the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''en'' (pronounced ), plural ''ens''. History ...
in Moraes, 1931, pp. 51–52)
Pulakesi I must have been an administrative official of the northern Kadamba territory centered in Badami ( Moraes 1931, pp. 51–52)The Chalukya base was Badami and Aihole (Thapar 2003, p. 328)Inscriptional evidence proves the Chalukyas were native Kannadigas (Karmarkar, 1947, p. 26) A theory that they were descendants of a 2nd-century chieftain called Kandachaliki Remmanaka, a feudatory of the
Andhra Ikshvaku The Ikshvaku (IAST: Ikṣvāku) dynasty ruled in the eastern Krishna River valley of India, from their capital at Vijayapuri (modern Nagarjunakonda in Andhra Pradesh) during approximately 3rd and 4th centuries CE. The Ikshvakus are also kno ...
(from an Ikshvaku inscription of the 2nd century) was put forward. This according to Kamath has failed to explain the difference in lineage. The Kandachaliki feudatory call themselves ''Vashisthiputras'' of the ''Hiranyakagotra''. The Chalukyas, however, address themselves as ''Harithiputras'' of ''Manavyasagotra'' in their inscriptions, which is the same lineage as their early overlords, the Kadambas of Banavasi. This makes them descendants of the Kadambas. The Chalukyas took control of the territory formerly ruled by the Kadambas.Pulakesi I of Badami who was a feudatory of the Kadamba king Krishna Varman II, overpowered his overlord in c. 540 and took control of the Kadamba Kingdom (Kamath 2001, p. 35) A later record of Eastern Chalukyas mentions the northern origin theory and claims one ruler of
Ayodhya Ayodhya (; ) is a city situated on the banks of holy river Saryu in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Ayodhya, also known as Saketa, is an ancient city of India, the birthplace of Rama and setting of the great epic Ramayana. Ayodhy ...
came south, defeated the Pallavas and married a Pallava princess. She had a child called Vijayaditya who is claimed to be the Pulakeshin I's father. However, according to the historians K. V. Ramesh, Chopra and Sastri, there are Badami Chalukya inscriptions that confirm Jayasimha was Pulakeshin I's grandfather and
Ranaraga Ranaraga (IAST: Raṇarāga) was an early 6th century ruler of the Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi (modern Badami) in present-day India. A vassal ruler, he was the father of the dynasty's first sovereign ruler, Pulakeshin I. Reign A 543 CE (Shaka ...
, his father.Jayasimha (Pulakesi I's grandfather) is known from the Kaira inscription of 472–473 CE. Both Jayasimha and Ranaraga (Pulakesi I's father) are known from Mahakuta inscription of 599 CE and Aihole record of 634 CE (Ramesh 1984, pp. 26–27, p. 30)From the Badami Cliff inscription of Pulakesi I and from the Hyderabad record of Pulakesi II which states their family ancestry (Kamath 2001, pp. 56–58)Sastri (1955), p. 154Chopra (2003), p. 73, part 1 Kamath and Moraes claim it was a popular practice in the 11th century to link South Indian royal family lineage to a Northern kingdom. The Badami Chalukya records themselves are silent with regards to the Ayodhya origin.Kamath (2001), p. 56Moraes (1931). pp. 10–11 While the northern origin theory has been dismissed by many historians, the epigraphist K. V. Ramesh has suggested that an earlier southern migration is a distinct possibility which needs examination.Ramesh (1984), p. 19 According to him, the complete absence of any inscriptional reference of their family connections to Ayodhya, and their subsequent Kannadiga identity may have been due to their earlier migration into present day Karnataka region where they achieved success as chieftains and kings. Hence, the place of origin of their ancestors may have been of no significance to the kings of the empire who may have considered themselves natives of the Kannada speaking region.Ramesh (1984), p. 20 The writing of 12th century
Kashmiri Kashmiri may refer to: * People or things related to the Kashmir Valley or the broader region of Kashmir * Kashmiris, an ethnic group native to the Kashmir Valley * Kashmiri language, their language People with the name * Kashmiri Saikia Baruah ...
poet Bilhana suggests the Chalukya family belonged to the Shudra caste while other sources claim they were
Kshatriya Kshatriya ( hi, क्षत्रिय) (from Sanskrit ''kṣatra'', "rule, authority") is one of the four varna (social orders) of Hindu society, associated with warrior aristocracy. The Sanskrit term ''kṣatriyaḥ'' is used in the co ...
s.Bilhana, in his Sanskrit work ''Vikramanakadevacharitam'' claims the Early Chalukya family were born from the feet of Hindu God
Brahma Brahma ( sa, ब्रह्मा, Brahmā) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the trinity of supreme divinity that includes Vishnu, and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp ...
, implying they were Shudras by caste, while other sources claim they were born in the arms of Brahma, and hence were Kshatriyas (Ramesh 1984, p. 15)
The historians Jan Houben and Kamath, and the epigraphist D.C. Sircar note the Badami Chalukya inscriptions are in
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
and
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural diffusion ...
.Sircar D.C. (1965), p. 48, ''Indian Epigraphy'', Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, Delhi, Kamath (2001), p. 57Houben (1996), p. 215 According to the historian N. L. Rao, their inscriptions call them ''Karnatas'' and their names use indigenous Kannada titles such as ''Priyagallam'' and ''Noduttagelvom''. The names of some Chalukya princes end with the pure Kannada term ''arasa'' (meaning "king" or "chief").Professor N.L. Rao has pointed out that some of their family records in Sanskrit have also named the princes with "arasa", such as Kattiyarasa ( Kirtivarman I), Bittarasa (
Kubja Vishnuvardhana Kubja Vishnuvardhana I "Vishama-Siddhi" also known as Bittarasa (reigned 624–641 AD) was the brother of Chalukya Pulakeshin II. Vishnuvardhana I ruled the Vengi territories in eastern Andhra Pradesh as the viceroy under Pulakeshin II from ar ...
) and Mangalarasa ( Mangalesha, Kamath 2001, pp. 57–60)
Historians Shafaat Ahmad Khan and S. Krishnasvami Aiyangar clarify that Arasa is Kannada word, equivalent to Sanskrit word Raja – ''Journal of Indian History'' p. 102, Published by Department of Modern Indian History, University of Allahabad The Rashtrakuta inscriptions call the Chalukyas of Badami ''Karnatabala'' ("Power of Karnata"). It has been proposed by the historian S. C. Nandinath that the word "Chalukya" originated from ''Salki'' or ''Chalki'' which is a Kannada word for an agricultural implement.Dr. Hoernle suggests a non-Sanskrit origin of the dynastic name. Dr. S.C. Nandinath feels the Chalukyas were of agricultural background and of Kannada origin who later took up a martial career. He feels the word ''Chalki'' found in some of their records must have originated from ''salki'', an agricultural implement (Kamath 2001, p. 57)The word ''Chalukya'' is derived from a Dravidian root (Kittel in Karmarkar 1947, p. 26) According to some historians, the Chalukyas originated from agriculturists.


Historical sources

Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada are the main source of information about Badami Chalukya history. Among them, the
Badami Badami, formerly known as Vatapi, is a town and headquarters of a taluk by the same name, in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India. It was the regal capital of the Badami Chalukyas from CE 540 to 757. It is famous for its rock cut monuments ...
cave inscriptions of Mangalesha (578),
Kappe Arabhatta Kappe Arabhatta ( kn, ಕಪ್ಪೆ ಅರಭಟ್ಟ) was a Chalukya warrior of the 8th century who is known from a Kannada verse inscription, dated to c. 700 CE, and carved on a cliff overlooking the northeast end of the artificial lake in ...
record of c. 700, Peddavaduguru inscription of Pulakeshin II, the
Kanchi Kanchipuram ('; ) also known as ''Conjeevaram,'' is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu in the Tondaimandalam region, from Chennaithe capital of Tamil Nadu. Known as the ''City of Thousand Temples'', Kanchipuram is known for its templ ...
Kailasanatha Temple inscription and
Pattadakal Pattadakal, also called Paṭṭadakallu or Raktapura, is a complex of 7th and 8th century CE Hindu and Jain temples in northern Karnataka (India). Located on the west bank of the Malaprabha River in Bagalakote district, this UNESCO World ...
Virupaksha Temple inscription of Vikramaditya II (all in Kannada language) provide more evidence of the Chalukya language.Kamath (2001), p. 6, p. 10, p. 57, p. 59, p. 67Ramesh (1984), p. 76, p. 159, pp. 161–162 The Badami cliff inscription of Pulakeshin I (543), the Mahakuta Pillar inscription of Mangalesha (595) and the
Aihole inscription The Aihole Inscription, also known as the Aihole ''prashasti'', is a nineteen line Sanskrit inscription at Meguti Jain temple in Aihole, Karnataka, India. An eulogy dated 634–635 CE, it was composed by the Jain poet Ravikirti in honor of his p ...
of Pulakeshin II (634) are examples of important Sanskrit inscriptions written in old Kannada script.Kamath (2001), p. 59 The reign of the Chalukyas saw the arrival of Kannada as the predominant language of inscriptions along with Sanskrit, in areas of the Indian peninsula outside what is known as Tamilakam (Tamil country).Thapar, (2003), p. 326 Several coins of the Badami Chalukyas with Kannada legends have been found. All this indicates that Kannada language flourished during this period.Kamath (2001), pp. 12, 57, 67 The Chalukya kings were called ''Velpularasar'' and ''Velkulattarasar'' by some communities, that is kings over ''Vel'' country (''pula'' means region or country)). Later day references to them in Choļa inscriptions puts the Chalukyas under the Velir community ruling in Deccan. Travelogues of contemporary foreign travellers have provided useful information about the Chalukyan empire. The Chinese traveller
Xuanzang Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
had visited the court of Pulakeshin II. At the time of this visit, as mentioned in the
Aihole Aihole (pronounced "Eye-hoḷé"), also referred to as Aivalli, Ahivolal or Aryapura, is a historic site of ancient and medieval era Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments in Karnataka, India that dates from the sixth century through the twelfth ...
record, Pulakeshin II had divided his empire into three ''Maharashtrakas'' or great provinces comprising 99,000 villages each. This empire possibly covered present day
Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO 15919, ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reor ...
,
Maharashtra Maharashtra (; , abbr. MH or Maha) is a state in the western peninsular region of India occupying a substantial portion of the Deccan Plateau. Maharashtra is the second-most populous state in India and the second-most populous country subdi ...
and coastal Konkan.Pulakesi II's ''Maharashtra'' extended from Nerbudda ( Narmada river) in the north to Tungabhadra in the south (Vaidya 1924, p. 171)Kamath (2001), p. 60 Xuanzang, impressed with the governance of the empire observed that the benefits of the king's efficient administration was felt far and wide. Later, Persian emperor Khosrau II exchanged ambassadors with Pulakeshin II.From the notes of Arab traveller Tabari (Kamath 2001, p. 60)Chopra (2003), p. 75, part 1


Legends

Court poets of the Western Chalukya dynasty of Kalyani narrate: :"Once when Brahma, the creator, was engaged in the performance of the ''sandhya'' (twilight) rituals, Indra approached and beseeched him to create a hero who could put to an end the increasing evil on earth. On being thus requested, Brahma looked steadily into the ''Chuluka-jala'' (the water of oblation in his palm) and out sprang thence a great warrior, the progenitor of the Chalukyas".Ramesh (1984), p. 14 The Chalukyas claimed to have been nursed by the '' Sapta Matrikas'' ("seven divine mothers") and were worshippers of many gods including Siva, Vishnu, Chamundi, Surya, Kubera, Parvati, Vinayaka and Kartikeya. Some scholars connect the Chalukyas with the Chaulukyas (Solankis) of
Gujarat Gujarat (, ) is a state along the western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the fifth-largest Indian state by area, covering some ; and the ninth ...
. According to a myth mentioned in latter manuscripts of Prithviraj Raso, Chaulukyas were born out of fire-pit (Agnikund) at
Mount Abu Mount Abu () is a hill station in the Aravalli Range in Sirohi district of the state of Rajasthan in western India.The mountain forms a rocky plateau 22 km long by 9 km wide. The highest peak on the mountain is Guru Shikhar at abov ...
. However it has been reported that the story of Agnikula is not mentioned at all in the original version of the Prithviraj Raso preserved in the Fort Library at
Bikaner Bikaner () is a city in the northwest of the state of Rajasthan, India. It is located northwest of the state capital, Jaipur. Bikaner city is the administrative headquarters of Bikaner District and Bikaner division. Formerly the capital o ...
. According to the Nilagunda inscription of King Vikramaditya VI (11th century or later), the Chalukyas originally hailed from
Ayodhya Ayodhya (; ) is a city situated on the banks of holy river Saryu in the Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. Ayodhya, also known as Saketa, is an ancient city of India, the birthplace of Rama and setting of the great epic Ramayana. Ayodhy ...
where fifty-nine kings ruled, and later, sixteen more of this family ruled from South India where they had migrated. This is repeated by his court poet Bilhana, who claims that the first member of the family, "Chalukya", was so named as he was born in the "hollow of the hands" of God
Brahma Brahma ( sa, ब्रह्मा, Brahmā) is a Hindu god, referred to as "the Creator" within the Trimurti, the trinity of supreme divinity that includes Vishnu, and Shiva.Jan Gonda (1969)The Hindu Trinity Anthropos, Bd 63/64, H 1/2, pp ...
.Kamath 2001, pp. 56Quote:"Another unhistorical trend met with in the epigraphical records of the 11th and subsequent centuries is the attempt, on the part of the court poets, no doubt, again, with the consent of their masters, to invent mythical genealogies which seek to carry back the antiquity of the royal families not merely to the periods of the epics and the Vedas but to the very moment of their creation in the heavens. As far as the Chalukyas of Vatapi are concerned, the blame of engineering such travesties attaches, once again, to the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani and their Eastern Chalukya contemporaries. The Eastern Chalukyas, for instance, have concocted the following long list of fifty-two names commencing with no less a personage than the divine preserver"(Ramesh 1984, p. 16) Some genealogical accounts point to an Ayodhya origin and claim that the Chalukyas belonged to the Solar dynasty. According to a theory put forward by Lewis, the Chalukya were descendants of the " Seleukia" tribe of
Iraq Iraq,; ku, عێراق, translit=Êraq officially the Republic of Iraq, '; ku, کۆماری عێراق, translit=Komarî Êraq is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq ...
and that their conflict with the Pallava of Kanchi was, but a continuation of the conflict between ancient Seleukia and "
Parthians Parthian may be: Historical * A demonym "of Parthia", a region of north-eastern of Greater Iran * Parthian Empire (247 BC – 224 AD) * Parthian language, a now-extinct Middle Iranian language * Parthian shot, an archery skill famously employed by ...
", the proposed ancestors of Pallavas. However, this theory has been rejected by Kamath as it seeks to build lineages based simply on similar-sounding clan names.Dr. Lewis's theory has not found acceptance because the Pallavas were in constant conflict with the Kadambas, prior to the rise of Chalukyas (Kamath 2001, p. 57)


Periods in Chalukya history

The Chalukyas ruled over the Deccan plateau in India for over 600 years. During this period, they ruled as three closely related, but individual dynasties. These are the "Chalukyas of Badami" (also called "Early Chalukyas"), who ruled between the 6th and the 8th century, and the two sibling dynasties, the "Chalukyas of Kalyani" (also called Western Chalukyas or "Later Chalukyas") and the "Chalukyas of Vengi" (also called Eastern Chalukyas).


Chalukyas of Badami

In the 6th century, with the decline of the Gupta dynasty and their immediate successors in northern India, major changes began to happen in the area south of the Vindhyas – the Deccan and Tamilakam. The age of small kingdoms had given way to large empires in this region.Thapar (2003), p. 326 The Chalukya dynasty was established by Pulakeshin I in 543.Popular theories regarding the name are: ''Puli'' – "tiger" in Kannada and ''Kesin'' – "haried" in Sanskrit; ''Pole'' – "lustrous" in Kannada, from his earliest Badami cliff inscription that literally spells ''Polekesi''; ''Pole'' – from Tamil word ''Punai'' (to tie a knot; Ramesh 1984, pp. 31–32)The name probably meant "the great lion" (Sastri 1955, p. 134)The name probably meant "One endowed with the strength of a great lion" (Chopra 2003, p. 73, part 1) Pulakeshin I took Vatapi (modern
Badami Badami, formerly known as Vatapi, is a town and headquarters of a taluk by the same name, in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India. It was the regal capital of the Badami Chalukyas from CE 540 to 757. It is famous for its rock cut monuments ...
in
Bagalkot Bagalakote, is a city in the state of Karnataka, India, which is also the headquarters of Bagalakote district. It is situated on branch of River Ghataprabha about 481 km (299 mi) northwest of state capital Bengaluru, 410 km (2 ...
district,
Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO 15919, ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reor ...
) under his control and made it his capital. Pulakeshin I and his descendants are referred to as "Chalukyas of Badami". They ruled over an empire that comprised the entire state of
Karnataka Karnataka (; ISO 15919, ISO: , , also known as Karunāḍu) is a States and union territories of India, state in the southwestern region of India. It was Unification of Karnataka, formed on 1 November 1956, with the passage of the States Reor ...
and most of
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
in the Deccan. Pulakeshin II, whose pre-coronation name was Ereya,Kamath (2001), pp. 58–59 commanded control over the entire Deccan and is perhaps the most well-known emperor of the Badami dynasty.Ramesh (1984), p. 76Chopra 2003, p. 74, part 1 He is considered one of the notable kings in Indian history.Quote:"His fame spread far and wide even beyond India" (Chopra 2003, p. 75 part 1)Quote:"One of the great kings of India". He successfully defied the expansion of king Harshavardhana of Northern India into the deccan. The Aihole inscription by Ravikirti describes how King Harsha lost his ''Harsha'' or cheerful disposition after his defeat. The Chinese traveller Hiuen Tsiang also confirms Pulakesi II's victory over King Harsha in his travelogue. Pulakesi II took titles such as ''Prithvivallabha'' and ''Dakshinapatha Prithviswamy'' (Kamath 2001, pp. 58–60)Quote:"Thus began one of the most colourful careers in Indian History" (Ramesh 1984, p. 76) His queens were princess from the Alupa Dynasty of
South Canara South Canara was a district of the Madras Presidency of British India, located at . It comprised the towns of Kassergode and Udipi and adjacent villages, with the capital in Mangalore city. South Canara was one of the most heterogeneous areas ...
and the
Western Ganga Dynasty Western Ganga was an important ruling dynasty of ancient Karnataka in India which lasted from about 350 to 1000 CE. They are known as "Western Gangas" to distinguish them from the Eastern Gangas who in later centuries ruled over Kalinga (m ...
of Talakad, clans with whom the Chalukyas maintained close family and marital relationships.Vikramaditya I, who later revived the Chalukya fortunes was born to Pulakesi II and the daughter of Western Ganga monarch
Durvinita Durvinita () is seen as the most successful ruler of the Western Ganga dynasty. Son of the previous ruler, Avinita, Durvinita's accession to the throne was disputed by his brother, who had gained the support of the Pallavas and Kadambas. Ther ...
(Chopra 2003, p. 74, part 1)
His other queen, an Alupa princess called Kadamba was the daughter of Aluka Maharaja (G.S. Gai in Kamath 2001, p. 94) Pulakeshin II extended the Chalukya Empire up to the northern extents of the Pallava kingdom and halted the southward march of Harsha by defeating him on the banks of the river Narmada. He then defeated the
Vishnukundins The Vishnukundina dynasty (IAST: Viṣṇukundina) was an Indian dynasty based in Deccan, which ruled modern Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Odisha and parts of South India during the 5th and 6th centuries, carving land out from the Vakataka Empire. ...
in the south-eastern Deccan.Quote:"The Aihole record gives an impressive list of his military conquests and other achievements. According to the record, he conquered the Kadambas, the Western Gangas, the north Konkan by naval victory, Harsha of Thanesar, the Latas, the Malwas, the Gurjaras (thereby obtaining sovereignty over the Maharashtras), Berar, Maharashtra and Kuntala (with their nine and ninety thousand villages), the Kalingas and the Kosalas, Pishtapura (Pishtapuram in eastern Andhra) and Kanchipuram, whose king had opposed the rise of his power" (Chopra 2003, p. 74 part 1)Ramesh (1984), pp. 79–80, pp. 86–87According to Dr. R. C. Majumdar, some principalities may have submitted to Pulakesi II out of fear of Harsha of Kanauj (Kamath 2001, p. 59)Sastri (1955), pp. 135–136 Pallava
Narasimhavarman Narasimhavarman I was a emperor of the Pallava dynasty who ruled South India from 630 CE – 668 CE. He shared his father Mahendravarman I's love of art and completed the work started by Mahendravarman in Mamallapuram. During his reign famo ...
however reversed this victory in 642 by attacking and occupying Badami temporarily. It is presumed Pulakeshin II, "the great hero", died fighting.Sastri (1955), p. 136 The Badami Chalukya dynasty went into a brief decline following the death of Pulakeshin II due to internal feuds when Badami was occupied by the Pallavas for a period of thirteen years.This is attested to by an inscription behind the Mallikarjuna temple in Badami (Sastri 1955, p. 136)Chopra (2003), pp. 75–76, part 1 It recovered during the reign of Vikramaditya I, who succeeded in pushing the Pallavas out of Badami and restoring order to the empire. Vikramaditya I took the title "Rajamalla" (''lit'' "Sovereign of the ''Mallas''" or Pallavas).From the Gadval plates dated c. 674 of Vikramaditya I (Chopra 2003, p. 76, part 1) The thirty-seven year rule of Vijayaditya (696–733) was a prosperous one and is known for prolific temple building activity.Chopra (2003), p. 76, part 1Sastri (1955), p. 138 The empire was its peak again during the rule of the illustrious Vikramaditya II (733–744) who is known not only for his repeated invasions of the territory of Tondaimandalam and his subsequent victories over Pallava Nandivarman II, but also for his benevolence towards the people and the monuments of Kanchipuram, the Pallava capital.From the Kannada inscription at the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram (Sastri 1955, p. 140)Kamath (2001), p. 63 He thus avenged the earlier humiliation of the Chalukyas by the Pallavas and engraved a
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
inscription on the victory pillar at the Kailasanatha Temple.Thapar (2003), p. 331Ramesh (1984), pp. 159–160 During his reign Arab intruders of the Caliphal province of Sind invaded southern Gujarat which was under Chalukya rule, but the Arabs were defeated and driven out by Avanijanashraya Pulakeshin, the governor of the Chalukya branch of Navsari. Vikramaditya II later overran the other traditional kingdoms of Tamil country, the Pandyas, the Cholas and the Cheras in addition to subduing a Kalabhra ruler.Ramesh (1984), p. 159 The last Chalukya king,
Kirtivarman II Kirtivarman II also known as Rahappa (reigned 746 – 753 CE) was the last ruler in the Badami Chalukya dynasty. He succeeded his father Vikramaditya II. His reign was continuously troubled by the growing power of the Rashtrakutas and Pandyas ...
, was overthrown by the Rashtrakuta King
Dantidurga Dantidurga (reigned 735–756 CE), also known as Dantivarman II was the founder of the Rashtrakuta Empire of Manyakheta. Reu (1933), p54 His capital was based in Gulbarga region of Karnataka. His successor was his uncle Krishna I who extended his ...
in 753.Ramesh (1984), pp. 173–174 At their peak, the Chalukyas ruled a vast empire stretching from the
Kaveri The Kaveri (also known as Cauvery, the anglicized name) is one of the major Indian rivers flowing through the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. The Kaveri river rises at Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri range in the Western Ghats, Kodagu d ...
in the south to the Narmada in the north.


Chalukyas of Kalyani

The Chalukyas revived their fortunes in 973 after over 200 years of dormancy when much of the Deccan was under the rule of the Rashtrakutas. The genealogy of the kings of this empire is still debated. One theory, based on contemporary literary and inscriptional evidence plus the finding that the Western Chalukyas employed titles and names commonly used by the early Chalukyas, suggests that the Western Chalukya kings belonged to the same family line as the illustrious Badami
Chalukya The Chalukya dynasty () was a Classical Indian dynasty that ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th centuries. During this period, they ruled as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynast ...
dynasty of the 6th centuryPoet Bilhanas 12th century Sanskrit work '' Vikramadeva Charitam'' and Ranna's Kannada work ''Gadayuddha'' (982) and inscriptions from Nilagunda, Yevvur, Kauthem and Miraj claim Tailapa II was son of Vikramaditya IV, seventh in descent from Bhima, brother of Badami Chalukya Vikramaditya II (Kamath 2001, p. 100)Kings of the Chalukya line of Vemulavada, who were certainly from the Badami Chalukya family line used the title "Malla" which is often used by the Western Chalukyas. Names such as "Satyashraya" which were used by the Badami Chalukya are also names of a Western Chalukya king, (Gopal B.R. in Kamath 2001, p. 100) while other Western Chalukya inscriptional evidence indicates they were a distinct line unrelated to the Early Chalukyas.Unlike the Badami Chalukyas, the Kalyani Chalukyas did not claim to be ''Harithiputhras'' of ''Manavysya gotra'' in lineage. The use of titles like ''Tribhuvanamalla'' marked them as of a distinct line (Fleet, Bhandarkar and Altekar in Kamath 2001, p. 100) Tailapa II, a Rashtrakuta feudatory ruling from Tardavadi – 1000 ( Bijapur district) overthrew Karka II, re-established the Chalukya rule in the western Deccan and recovered most of the Chalukya empire.Later legends and tradition hailed Tailapa as an incarnation of the God
Krishna Krishna (; sa, कृष्ण ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme god in his own right. He is the god of protection, compassion, tenderness, and love; and is on ...
who fought 108 battles against the race of Ratta ( Rashtrakuta) and captured 88 fortresses from them (Sastri 1955, p. 162)
From his c. 957 and c.965 records (Kamath 2001, p. 101 The Western Chalukyas ruled for over 200 years and were in constant conflict with the Cholas, and with their cousins, the Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi. Vikramaditya VI is widely considered the most notable ruler of the dynasty.Vijnyaneshavara, the Sanskrit scholar in his court, eulogised him as "a king like none other" (Kamath 2001, p. 106)The writing ''Vikramankadevacharita'' by Bilhana is a eulogy of the achievements of the king in 18 cantos (Sastri, 1955 p. 315) Starting from the very beginning of his reign, which lasted fifty years, he abolished the original ''Saka'' era and established the ''Vikrama Era''. Most subsequent Chalukya inscriptions are dated in this new era.Cousens 1926, p. 11Vikrama–Chalukya era of 1075 CE (Thapar 2003, p. 469) Vikramaditya VI was an ambitious and skilled military leader. Under his leadership the Western Chalukyas were able to end the Chola influence over Vengi (coastal Andhra) and become the dominant power in the Deccan.Chopra (2003), p. 139, part 1Sastri (1955), p. 175 The Western Chalukya period was an important age in the development of Kannada literature and Sanskrit literature.Kamath (2001), pp. 114–115Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 18–20 They went into their final dissolution towards the end of the 12th century with the rise of the Hoysala Empire, the Pandyas, the Kakatiya and the
Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri The Seuna, Sevuna, or Yadavas of Devagiri (IAST: Seuṇa, –1317) was a Medieval Indian dynasty, which at its peak ruled a kingdom stretching from the Narmada river in the north to the Tungabhadra river in the south, in the western part of t ...
.Sastri (1955), p. 192


Chalukyas of Vengi

Pulakeshin II conquered the eastern Deccan, corresponding to the coastal districts of modern
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh (, abbr. AP) is a state in the south-eastern coastal region of India. It is the seventh-largest state by area covering an area of and tenth-most populous state with 49,386,799 inhabitants. It is bordered by Telangana to the ...
in 616, defeating the remnants of the Vishnukundina kingdom. He appointed his brother
Kubja Vishnuvardhana Kubja Vishnuvardhana I "Vishama-Siddhi" also known as Bittarasa (reigned 624–641 AD) was the brother of Chalukya Pulakeshin II. Vishnuvardhana I ruled the Vengi territories in eastern Andhra Pradesh as the viceroy under Pulakeshin II from ar ...
as Viceroy in 621.Pulakesi II made Vishnuvardhana the ''Yuvaraja'' or crown prince. Later Vishnuvardhana become the founder of the Eastern Chalukya empire (Sastri 1955, pp. 134–136, p. 312)Chopra (2003), p. 132, part 1 Thus the Eastern Chalukyas were originally of Kannada stock.Kamath (2001), p. 8 After the death of Pulakeshin II, the Vengi Viceroyalty developed into an independent kingdom and included the region between Nellore and Visakhapatnam.Kamath 2001, p. 60 After the decline of the Badami Chalukya empire in the mid-8th century, territorial disputes flared up between the Rashtrakutas, the new rulers of the western deccan, and the Eastern Chalukyas. For much of the next two centuries, the Eastern Chalukyas had to accept subordination towards the Rashtrakutas.Chopra (2003), p. 133 Apart from a rare military success, such as the one by Vijayaditya II(c.808–847), it was only during the rule of Bhima I (c.892–921) that these Chalukyas were able to celebrate a measure of independence. After the death of Bhima I, the Andhra region once again saw succession disputes and interference in Vengi affairs by the Rashtrakutas. The fortunes of the Eastern Chalukyas took a turn around 1000. Danarnava, their king, was killed in battle in 973 by the Telugu Choda King Bhima who then imposed his rule over the region for twenty-seven years. During this time, Danarnava's two sons took refuge in the Chola kingdom. Choda Bhima's invasion of Tondaimandalam, a Chola territory, and his subsequent death on the battlefield opened up a new era in Chola–Chalukya relations. Saktivarman I, the elder son of Danarnava was crowned as the ruler of Vengi in 1000, though under the control of king Rajaraja Chola I.Sastri (1955), pp. 164–165 This new relationship between the Cholas and the coastal Andhra kingdom was unacceptable to the Western Chalukyas, who had by then replaced the Rashtrakutas as the main power in the western Deccan. The Western Chalukyas sought to brook the growing Chola influence in the Vengi region but were unsuccessful.Sastri (1955), p. 165 Initially, the Eastern Chalukyas had encouraged Kannada language and literature, though, after a period of time, local factors took over and they gave importance to
Telugu language Telugu (; , ) is a Dravidian languages, Dravidian language spoken by Telugu people predominantly living in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, where it is also the official language. It is the most widely spoken ...
.Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 68The Eastern Chalukya inscriptions show a gradual shift towards Telugu with the appearance of Telugu stanzas from the time of king Gunaga Vijayaditya (Vijayaditya III) in the middle of the 9th century, Telugu literature owes its growth to the Eastern Chalukyas.The first work of Telugu literature is a translation of ''Mahabharata'' by Nannaya during the rule of Eastern Chalukya king Rajaraja Narendra (1019–1061; Sastri 1955, p. 367)


Architecture

The Badami Chalukya era was an important period in the development of South Indian architecture. The kings of this dynasty were called ''Umapati Varlabdh'' and built many temples for the Hindu god Shiva.by Tartakov, Gary Michael (1997), ''The Durga Temple at Aihole: A Historiographical Study'', Oxford University Press, Their style of architecture is called "Chalukyan architecture" or "Karnata Dravida architecture".Hardy (1995), p. 5Quote"The Badami Chalukyas had introduced a glorious chapter, alike in heroism in battle and cultural magnificence in peace, in the western Deccan" (K.V. Sounder Rajan in Kamath 2001, p. 68) Nearly a hundred monuments built by them, rock cut (cave) and structural, are found in the
Malaprabha The Malaprabha River (Kannada ಮಲಪ್ರಭಾ ನದಿ) is a tributary of the Krishna River and flows through the state of Karnataka in India. It rises in the Western Ghats at an elevation of in the state's Belgaum district. The rive ...
river basin in modern
Bagalkot district Bagalakote district(), is an administrative district in the Indian state of Karnataka. The district headquarters is located in the town of Bagalakote. The district is located in northern Karnataka and borders Belgaum, Gadag, Koppal, Raichur an ...
of northern Karnataka.Kamath 2001, p. 68 The building material they used was a reddish-golden
Sandstone Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock composed mainly of sand-sized (0.0625 to 2 mm) silicate grains. Sandstones comprise about 20–25% of all sedimentary rocks. Most sandstone is composed of quartz or feldspar (both silicat ...
found locally. These cave temples are basically excavations, cut out of the living rock sites they occupy. They were not built as their structural counterparts were, rather created by a special technique known as "subtraction" and are basically sculptural.Tarr, Gary (1970), p.156, ''Chronology and Development of the Chāḷukya Cave Temples'', Ars Orientalis, Vol. 8, pp. 155–184 Though they ruled a vast empire, the Chalukyan workshops concentrated most of their temple building activity in a relatively small area within the Chalukyan heartland –
Aihole Aihole (pronounced "Eye-hoḷé"), also referred to as Aivalli, Ahivolal or Aryapura, is a historic site of ancient and medieval era Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments in Karnataka, India that dates from the sixth century through the twelfth ...
,
Badami Badami, formerly known as Vatapi, is a town and headquarters of a taluk by the same name, in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India. It was the regal capital of the Badami Chalukyas from CE 540 to 757. It is famous for its rock cut monuments ...
,
Pattadakal Pattadakal, also called Paṭṭadakallu or Raktapura, is a complex of 7th and 8th century CE Hindu and Jain temples in northern Karnataka (India). Located on the west bank of the Malaprabha River in Bagalakote district, this UNESCO World ...
and Mahakuta in modern Karnataka state.Hardy (1995), p. 65 Their temple building activity can be categorised into three phases. The early phase began in the last quarter of the 6th century and resulted in many cave temples, prominent among which are three elementary cave temples at Aihole (one Vedic, one Jain and one Buddhist which is incomplete), followed by four developed cave temples at Badami (of which cave 3, a Vaishnava temple, is dated accurately to 578 CE). These cave temples at Badami are similar, in that, each has a plain exterior but an exceptionally well finished interior consisting of a pillared verandah, a columned hall (''
mantapa A mandapa or mantapa () is a pillared hall or pavilion for public rituals in Indian architecture, especially featured in Hindu temple architecture. Mandapas are described as "open" or "closed" depending on whether they have walls. In temples, ...
'') and a cella (shrine, cut deep into rock) which contains the deity of worship.Sastri (1955), p. 406 In Badami, three caves temples are Vedic and one in Jain. The Vedic temples contain large well sculpted images of Harihara, Mahishasuramardhini, Varaha, Narasimha, Trivikrama,
Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...
seated on Anantha (the snake) and
Nataraja Nataraja () also known as Adalvallaan () is a depiction of the Hindu god Shiva as the divine cosmic dancer. His dance is called Tandava.''Encyclopædia Britannica'' (2015) The pose and artwork are described in many Hindu texts such as the ''T ...
(dancing
Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one o ...
).Quote:"The Chalukyas cut rock like titans but finished like jewellers"(Sheshadri in Kamath 2001, pp. 68–69) The second phase of temple building was at Aihole (where some seventy structures exist and has been called "one of the cradles of Indian temple architecture" Percy Brown in Kamath (2001), p. 68) and Badami. Though the exact dating of these temples has been debated, there is consensus that the beginnings of these constructions are from c. 600.Sastri (1955), p. 407Hardy (1995), p. 67Foekema (2003), p. 11 These are the
Lad Khan Temple The Chalukya Shiva Temple (earlier known as Lad Khan Temple), dedicated to Shiva, is one of the oldest Hindu temples and is located in the group of monuments at Aihole in the state of Karnataka, India. Formerly dated to the 7th or 8th century, ...
(dated by some to c. 450 but more accurately to 620) with its interesting perforated stone windows and sculptures of river goddesses; the Meguti Jain Temple (634) which shows progress in structural design; the Durga Temple with its northern Indian style tower (8th century) and experiments to adapt a Buddhist ''Chaitya'' design to a brahminical one (its stylistic framework is overall a hybrid of north and south Indian styles.); the Huccimalli Gudi Temple with a new inclusion, a
vestibule Vestibule or Vestibulum can have the following meanings, each primarily based upon a common origin, from early 17th century French, derived from Latin ''vestibulum, -i n.'' "entrance court". Anatomy In general, vestibule is a small space or cavity ...
, connecting the sanctum to the hall.Sastri (1955), pp. 407–408 Other ''dravida'' style temples from this period are the Naganatha Temple at Nagaral; the Banantigudi Temple, the Mahakutesvara Temple and the Mallikarjuna Temple at Mahakuta; and the Lower Sivalaya Temple, the Malegitti Sivalaya Temple (upper) and the Jambulingesvara Temple at Badami. Located outside the Chalukyan architectural heartland, 140 km south-east of Badami, with a structure related to the Early Chalukya style is the unusual Parvati Temple at
Sanduru Sanduru (often written Sandur) is a town in Bellary District in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is the administrative seat of Sanduru taluka. Sandur was ruled by the Ghorpade royal family of the Maratha The Marathi people (Marathi: म ...
which dates to the late 7th century. It is medium-sized, 48 ft long and 37 ft wide. It has a ''nagara'' (north Indian) style ''vimana'' (tower) and ''dravida'' (south Indian) style parts, has no
mantapa A mandapa or mantapa () is a pillared hall or pavilion for public rituals in Indian architecture, especially featured in Hindu temple architecture. Mandapas are described as "open" or "closed" depending on whether they have walls. In temples, ...
(hall) and consists of an ''
antarala Antarala (Sanskrit: अन्तराल, lit. ''intermediate space'') is a small antechamber or foyer between the garbhagriha (shrine) and the mandapa A mandapa or mantapa () is a pillared hall or pavilion for public rituals in Indian arc ...
'' (
vestibule Vestibule or Vestibulum can have the following meanings, each primarily based upon a common origin, from early 17th century French, derived from Latin ''vestibulum, -i n.'' "entrance court". Anatomy In general, vestibule is a small space or cavity ...
) crowned with a barrel-vaulted tower (''sukhanasi''). The "staggered" base plan of the temple became popular much later, in the 11th century.Carol Radcliffe Bolon, (1980) pp. 303–326, ''The Pārvatī Temple, Sandur and Early Images of Agastya'', Artibus Asiae Vol. 42, No. 4Hardy (1995), p.342, p.278 The structural temples at Pattadakal, built in the 8th century and now a
UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization is a List of specialized agencies of the United Nations, specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) aimed at promoting world peace and security through international coope ...
World Heritage Site A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). World Heritage Sites are designated by UNESCO for ...
, marks the culmination and mature phase of Badami Chalukyan architecture. The Bhutanatha group of temples at Badami are also from this period. There are ten temples at Pattadakal, six in southern ''dravida'' style and four in the northern ''nagara'' style. Well known among these are the Sangamesvara Temple (725), the Virupaksha Temple (740–745) and the Mallikarjuna Temple (740–745) in the southern style. The Papanatha temple (680) and Galaganatha Temple (740) are early attempts in the ''nagara'' – ''dravida'' fusion style.Sastri (1955), p. 408 Inscriptional evidence suggests that the Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna Temples were commissioned by the two queens of King Vikramaditya II after his military success over the Pallavas of Kanchipuram. Some well known names of Chalukyan architects are Revadi Ovajja, Narasobba and Anivarita Gunda.Kamath (2001), p. 69 The reign of Western Chalukyas was an important period in the development of Deccan architecture. Their architecture served as a conceptual link between the Badami Chalukya architecture of the 8th century and the Hoysala architecture popularised in the 13th century.Quote:"Their creations have the pride of place in Indian art tradition" (Kamath 2001, p. 115)Sastri (1955), p. 427 The centre of their cultural and temple-building activity lay in the Tungabhadra region of modern Karnataka state, encompassing the present-day
Dharwad district Dharwad is an administrative district of the state of Karnataka in southern India.The administrative headquarters of the district is the city of Dharwad, also known as Dharwar. Dharwad is located 425 km northwest of Bangalore and 421&n ...
; it included areas of present-day Haveri and Gadag districts.Cousens (1926, p 17Foekema (1996), p. 14 Here, large medieval workshops built numerous monuments.Hardy (1995), p. 156 These monuments, regional variants of pre-existing dravida temples, defined the ''Karnata dravida'' tradition.Hardy (1995), pp. 6–7 The most notable of the many buildings dating from this period are the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi in the Koppal district,Cousens (1926), pp. 100–102Hardy (1995), p. 333 the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi in the
Gadag district Gadag is a district in the state of Karnataka, India. It was formed in 1997, when it was split from Dharwad district. As of 2011, it had a population of 1064570 (of which 35.21 percent was urban). The overall population increased by 13.14 perc ...
,Cousens (1926), pp. 79–82Hardy (1995), p. 336 the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, and the Kallesvara Temple at Bagali,Hardy (1995), p. 323 both in the Davangere district.The Mahadeva Temple at Itagi has been called the finest in Kannada country after the Hoysaleswara temple at Halebidu (Cousens in Kamath 2001, p 117) Other notable constructions are the
Dodda Basappa Temple Doddabasappa Temple () is a 12th-century Western Chalukyan architectural innovation in Dambal, Karnataka state, India. Dambal is about southeast of Gadag city and southwest of Ittagi in Koppal district.Cousens (1926), p. 114 The sanctum conta ...
at Dambal (Gadag district),Cousens (1926), pp. 114–115Hardy (1995), p. 326 the
Siddhesvara Temple The Siddhesvara Temple (also spelt Siddheshvara or Siddheshwara and locally called ''Purada Siddeshwara'' ) is located in the town of Haveri in Haveri district, Karnataka state, India. It is considered an ornate example of 12th century Western ...
at Haveri ( Haveri district),Cousens (1926), pp. 85–87Hardy (1995), p. 330 and the Amrtesvara Temple at Annigeri (
Dharwad district Dharwad is an administrative district of the state of Karnataka in southern India.The administrative headquarters of the district is the city of Dharwad, also known as Dharwar. Dharwad is located 425 km northwest of Bangalore and 421&n ...
).Foekema (2003), p. 52Hardy (1995), p. 321 The Eastern Chalukyas built some fine temples at Alampur, in modern eastern Andhra Pradesh.Hardy (1995), p. 66The Badami Chalukyas influenced the art of the rulers of Vengi and those of Gujarat (Kamath 2001, pp. 68, 69) File:Badami, Höhle 4, Bahubali (1999).jpg,
Bahubali Bahubali (), a much revered figure among Jains, was the son of Rishabadeva (the first ''tirthankara'' of Jainism) and the brother of Bharata Chakravartin. He is said to have meditated motionless for a year in a standing posture (''kayotsarg ...
at Jain Cave temple No. 4 at Badami, 6th century File:Vishnu image inside cave number 3 in Badami.jpg, Vishnu image in Cave temple No. 3 File:Bhutanatha temple complex in Badami.jpg, Bhutanatha group of temples facing the
Badami Badami, formerly known as Vatapi, is a town and headquarters of a taluk by the same name, in the Bagalkot district of Karnataka, India. It was the regal capital of the Badami Chalukyas from CE 540 to 757. It is famous for its rock cut monuments ...
tank File:Parvati temple at Krauncha Giri near Sandur, Ballary district.jpg, The Parvati Temple, located about 140 km southeast to the Badami File:Durga Temple.jpg,
Aihole Aihole (pronounced "Eye-hoḷé"), also referred to as Aivalli, Ahivolal or Aryapura, is a historic site of ancient and medieval era Buddhist, Hindu and Jain monuments in Karnataka, India that dates from the sixth century through the twelfth ...
– Durga Temple Front View File:Jain basadi.JPG, Aihole – Meguti Jain Temple File:Mallikarjuna and Kasivisvanatha temples at Pattadakal.jpg, Mallikarjuna temple in ''dravidian'' style and Kashi Vishwanatha temple in ''nagara'' style at
Pattadakal Pattadakal, also called Paṭṭadakallu or Raktapura, is a complex of 7th and 8th century CE Hindu and Jain temples in northern Karnataka (India). Located on the west bank of the Malaprabha River in Bagalakote district, this UNESCO World ...
, built 740 CE File:Badami-shiva.JPG, Dancing Shiva in cave no. 1 in Badami File:Papanatha temple at Pattadakal.jpg, Papanatha temple at Pattadakal – fusion of southern and northern Indian styles, 680 CE


Literature

The
Aihole inscription The Aihole Inscription, also known as the Aihole ''prashasti'', is a nineteen line Sanskrit inscription at Meguti Jain temple in Aihole, Karnataka, India. An eulogy dated 634–635 CE, it was composed by the Jain poet Ravikirti in honor of his p ...
of Pulakeshin II (634) written by his court poet Ravikirti in Sanskrit language and Kannada script is considered as a classical piece of poetry.Quote:"He deemed himself the peer of Bharavi and Kalidasa". An earlier inscription in Mahakuta, in prose is comparable to the works of Bana (Sastri, 1955, p. 312) A few verses of a poet named Vijayanaka who describes herself as the "dark
Sarasvati Saraswati ( sa, सरस्वती, ) is the Hindu goddess of knowledge, music, art, speech, wisdom, and learning. She is one of the Tridevi, along with the goddesses Lakshmi and Parvati. The earliest known mention of Saraswati as a ...
" have been preserved. It is possible that she may have been a queen of prince Chandraditya (a son of Pulakeshin II).Sastri, 1955, p. 312 Famous writers in Sanskrit from the Western Chalukya period are Vijnaneshwara who achieved fame by writing Mitakshara, a book on Hindu law, and King
Someshvara III Someshvara III (; ) was a Western Chalukya king (also known as the Kalyani Chalukyas), the son and successor of Vikramaditya VI. He ascended the throne of the Western Chalukya Kingdom in 1126 CE, or 1127 CE. Someshvara III, the third king in t ...
, a noted scholar, who compiled an encyclopedia of all arts and sciences called ''Manasollasa''.The writing is on various topics including traditional medicine, music, precious stones, dance etc. (Kamath 2001, p. 106) From the period of the Badami Chalukyas, references are made to the existence of Kannada literature, though not much has survived.Sen (1999), p. 366 Inscriptions however refer to Kannada as the "natural language".Thapar (2003), p. 345 The
Kappe Arabhatta Kappe Arabhatta ( kn, ಕಪ್ಪೆ ಅರಭಟ್ಟ) was a Chalukya warrior of the 8th century who is known from a Kannada verse inscription, dated to c. 700 CE, and carved on a cliff overlooking the northeast end of the artificial lake in ...
record of c. 700 in ''
tripadi Tripadi (Kannada, lit. ''tri'': three, ''pad'' or "adi": feet) is a native metre in the Kannada language dating back to c. 700 CE. Definition The ''tripadi'' consists of three lines, each differing from the others in the number of feet and mora ...
'' (three line) metre is the earliest available work in Kannada poetics.Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1717 ''Karnateshwara Katha'', which was quoted later by Jayakirti, is believed to be a eulogy of Pulakeshin II and to have belonged to this period.Chidananda Murthy in Kamath (2001), p. 67 Other probable Kannada writers, whose works are not extant now but titles of which are known from independent referencesSuch as Indranandi's ''Srutavatara'', Devachandra's ''Rajavalikathe'' (Narasimhacharya, 1934, pp. 4–5); Bhattakalanka's ''Sabdanusasana'' of 1604 (Sastri 1955, p. 355) are Syamakundacharya (650), who is said to have authored the ''Prabhrita'', and Srivaradhadeva (also called Tumubuluracharya, 650 or earlier), the possible author of the ''Chudamani'' ("Crest Jewel"), a lengthy commentary on
logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating how conclusions follow from prem ...
.Sastri (1955), p. 355Mugali (1975), p. 13Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 4 The rule of the Western and Eastern Chalukyas, however, is a major event in the history of Kannada and Telugu literatures respectively. By the 9th–10th centuries, Kannada language had already seen some of its most notable writers. The "three gems" of Kannada literature, Adikavi Pampa, Sri Ponna and Ranna belonged to this period.Sastri 1955, p. 356Chopra (2003), p. 196, part 1 In the 11th century, Telugu literature was born under the patronage of the Eastern Chalukyas with Nannaya Bhatta as its first writer.Sastri (1955), p. 367


Badami Chalukya country


Army

The army was well organised and this was the reason for Pulakeshin II's success beyond the Vindyas.Chopra (2003), p. 77, part1 It consisted of an infantry, a cavalry, an elephant corps and a powerful navy. The Chinese traveller
Hiuen-Tsiang Xuanzang (, ; 602–664), born Chen Hui / Chen Yi (), also known as Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, traveler, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making contributions to Chinese Buddhism, the travelogue of ...
wrote that the Chalukyan army had hundreds of elephants which were intoxicated with liquor prior to battle.Kamath (2001), p. 64 It was with their navy that they conquered ''Revatidvipa'' ( Goa), and
Puri Puri () is a coastal city and a municipality in the state of Odisha in eastern India. It is the district headquarters of Puri district and is situated on the Bay of Bengal, south of the state capital of Bhubaneswar. It is also known as '' ...
on east coast of India. Rashtrakuta inscriptions use the term ''Karnatabala'' when referring to the powerful Chalukya armies.Kamath 2001, pp. 57, 65


Land governance

The government, at higher levels, was closely modelled after the
Magadha Magadha was a region and one of the sixteen sa, script=Latn, Mahajanapadas, label=none, lit=Great Kingdoms of the Second Urbanization (600–200 BCE) in what is now south Bihar (before expansion) at the eastern Ganges Plain. Magadha was rul ...
n and
Satavahana The Satavahanas (''Sādavāhana'' or ''Sātavāhana'', IAST: ), also referred to as the Andhras in the Puranas, were an ancient Indian dynasty based in the Deccan region. Most modern scholars believe that the Satavahana rule began in the l ...
administrative machinery. The empire was divided into ''Maharashtrakas'' (provinces), then into smaller ''Rashtrakas'' (''Mandala''), '' Vishaya'' (district), ''Bhoga'' (group of 10 villages) which is similar to the ''Dasagrama'' unit used by the Kadambas. At the lower levels of administration, the Kadamba style prevailed fully. The Sanjan plates of Vikramaditya I even mentions a land unit called ''Dasagrama''.The breakup of land into ''mandalas'', ''vishaya'' existed in the Kadamba administrative machinery (Kamath 2001, pp. 36, 65, 66) In addition to imperial provinces, there were autonomous regions ruled by feudatories such as the Alupas, the Gangas, the Banas and the Sendrakas.Kamath (2001), p. 65 Local assemblies and guilds looked after local issues. Groups of ''
mahajan Mahajan is an Indian surname.This is title for Vaishya Comunitiy. It signifies the profession of a moneylender or merchants,bankers and administrators. In the caste system, Mahajan is a trader who belongs to the Vaishya varna and the last name ma ...
as'' (learned
brahmin Brahmin (; sa, ब्राह्मण, brāhmaṇa) is a varna as well as a caste within Hindu society. The Brahmins are designated as the priestly class as they serve as priests ( purohit, pandit, or pujari) and religious teachers ( ...
s) looked after ''agraharas'' (called ''ghatika'' or "place of higher learning") such as at Badami which was served by 2000 ''mahajans'' and Aihole which was served by 500 ''mahajanas''. Taxes were levied and were called the ''herjunka'' – tax on loads, the ''kirukula'' – tax on retail goods in transit, the ''bilkode'' – sales tax, the ''pannaya'' – betel tax, ''siddaya'' – land tax and the ''vaddaravula'' – tax levied to support royalty.


Coinage

The Badami Chalukyas minted coins that were of a different standard compared to the coins of the northern kingdoms.However, they issued gold coins that weighed 120 grams, in imitation of the Gupta dynasty (A.V. Narasimha Murthy in Kamath 2001, p. 65) The coins had '' Nagari'' and Kannada legends. The coins of Mangalesha had the symbol of a temple on the obverse and a 'sceptre between lamps' or a temple on the reverse. Pulakeshin II's coins had a caparisoned lion facing right on the obverse and a temple on the reverse. The coins weighed 4 grams and were called, in old-Kannada, ''hun'' (or ''honnu'') and had fractions such as ''fana'' (or ''fanam'') and the ''quarter fana'' (the modern day Kannada equivalent being ''hana'' – which literally means "money"). A gold coin called ''gadyana'' is mentioned in a record at the Vijayeshwara Temple at
Pattadakal Pattadakal, also called Paṭṭadakallu or Raktapura, is a complex of 7th and 8th century CE Hindu and Jain temples in northern Karnataka (India). Located on the west bank of the Malaprabha River in Bagalakote district, this UNESCO World ...
, which later came to be known as '' varaha'' (their royal emblem).


Religion

Both
Shaivism Shaivism (; sa, शैवसम्प्रदायः, Śaivasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Supreme Being. One of the largest Hindu denominations, it incorporates many sub-traditions rangi ...
and
Vaishnavism Vaishnavism ( sa, वैष्णवसम्प्रदायः, Vaiṣṇavasampradāyaḥ) is one of the major Hindu denominations along with Shaivism, Shaktism, and Smartism. It is also called Vishnuism since it considers Vishnu as ...
flourished during the Badami Chalukya period, though it seems the former was more popular.Chopra (2003), p. 191, part 1 Famous temples were built in places such as Pattadakal, Aihole and Mahakuta, and priests (''archakas'') were invited from northern India. Vedic sacrifices, religious vows (''vrata'') and the giving of gifts (''dana'') was important.Sastri (1955), p. 391 The Badami kings were followers of Vedic Hinduism and dedicated temples to popular Hindu deities in Aihole. Sculptures of deities testify to the popularity of Hindu Gods such as
Vishnu Vishnu ( ; , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism. Vishnu is known as "The Preserver" withi ...
,
Shiva Shiva (; sa, शिव, lit=The Auspicious One, Śiva ), also known as Mahadeva (; Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐ, or Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the Supreme Being in Shaivism, one o ...
,
Kartikeya Kartikeya ( sa, कार्त्तिकेय, Kārttikeya), also known as Skanda, Subrahmanya, Shanmukha (), and Murugan ( ta, முருகன்), is the Hindu god of war. He is the son of Parvati and Shiva, the brother of Ganesh ...
,
Ganapathi Ganesha ( sa, गणेश, ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka, and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped deities in the Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in Ganapatya sect. His image is found throughout India. Hindu ...
,
Shakti In Hinduism, especially Shaktism (a theological tradition of Hinduism), Shakti (Devanagari: शक्ति, IAST: Śakti; lit. "Energy, ability, strength, effort, power, capability") is the primordial cosmic energy, female in aspect, and r ...
,
Surya Surya (; sa, सूर्य, ) is the sun as well as the solar deity in Hinduism. He is traditionally one of the major five deities in the Smarta tradition, all of whom are considered as equivalent deities in the Panchayatana puja and a ...
and '' Sapta Matrikas'' ("seven mothers"). The Badami kings also performed the Ashwamedha ("horse sacrifice").Kamath 2001, p. 66 The worship of Lajja Gauri, a fertility goddess is known.
Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle bein ...
too was a prominent religion during this period. The kings of the dynasty were however secular and actively encouraged
Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religion. Jainism traces its spiritual ideas and history through the succession of twenty-four tirthankaras (supreme preachers of ''Dharma''), with the first in the current time cycle bein ...
. One of the Badami Cave temples is dedicated to the Jain faith. Jain temples were also erected in the Aihole complex, the temple at Maguti being one such example.Chopra (2003), p. 78, part 1 Ravikirti, the court poet of Pulakeshin II was a Jain. Queen Vinayavati consecrated a temple for the Trimurti ("Hindu trinity") at Badami. Sculptures of the Trimurti, Harihara (half Vishnu, half Shiva) and ''Ardhanarishwara'' (half Shiva, half woman) provide ample evidence of their tolerance. Buddhism was on a decline, having made its ingress into Southeast Asia. This is confirmed by the writings of Hiuen-Tsiang. Badami, Aihole, Kurtukoti and Puligere (modern
Lakshmeshwar Lakshmeshwara is a town, and newly created Taluk place along with Gajendragad in Gadag district, in the Indian state of Karnataka. It is about 40 km from Gadag and 55 km from Hubli. It is an agricultural trading town. Lakshmeshwara T ...
in the
Gadag district Gadag is a district in the state of Karnataka, India. It was formed in 1997, when it was split from Dharwad district. As of 2011, it had a population of 1064570 (of which 35.21 percent was urban). The overall population increased by 13.14 perc ...
) were primary places of learning.


Society

The
Hindu caste system The caste system in India is the paradigmatic ethnographic example of classification of castes. It has its origins in Outline of ancient India, ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early-modern, and modern ...
was present and devadasis were recognised by the government. Some kings had concubines (''ganikas'') who were given much respect,Vinopoti, a concubine of King Vijayaditya is mentioned with due respect in an inscription (Kamath 2001, p. 67) and Sati was perhaps absent since widows like Vinayavathi and Vijayanka are mentioned in records. Devadasis were however present in temples. Sage Bharata's ''Natyashastra'', the precursor to
Bharatanatyam Bharatanatyam () is a major form of Indian classical dance that originated in Tamil Nadu. It is one of the eight widely recognized Indian classical dance forms, and expresses South Indian religious themes and spiritual ideas, particularly of ...
, the classical dance of South India, was popular and is seen in many sculptures and is mentioned in inscriptions.One record mentions an artist called Achala who was well versed in ''Natyashastra'' (Kamath 2001, p. 67) Some women from the royal family enjoyed political power in administration. Queen Vijayanka was a noted Sanskrit poet, Kumkumadevi, the younger sister of Vijayaditya (and queen of Alupa King Chitravahana) made several grants and had a Jain basadi called Anesajjebasadi constructed at Puligere,From the Shiggaon plates of c. 707 and Gudigeri inscription dated 1076 (Ramesh 1984, pp. 142, 144) and the queens of Vikramaditya II, Lokamahadevi and Trailokyamahadevi made grants and possibly consecrated the Lokesvara Temple (now called Virupaksha temple) but also and the Mallikarjuna temple respectively at Pattadakal.Cousens (1926), p. 59


In popular culture

The Chalukya era may be seen as the beginning of the fusion of cultures of northern and southern India, making way for the transmission of ideas between the two regions. This is seen clearly in the field of architecture. The Chalukyas spawned the ''Vesara'' style of architecture which includes elements of the northern ''nagara'' and southern ''dravida'' styles. During this period, the expanding Sanskritic culture mingled with local Dravidian vernaculars which were already popular.
Dravidian languages The Dravidian languages (or sometimes Dravidic) are a family of languages spoken by 250 million people, mainly in southern India, north-east Sri Lanka, and south-west Pakistan. Since the colonial era, there have been small but significant im ...
maintain these influences even today. This influence helped to enrich literature in these languages.Sastri (1955), p. 309 The Hindu legal system owes much to the Sanskrit work ''Mitakshara'' by Vijnaneshwara in the court of Western Chalukya King Vikramaditya VI. Perhaps the greatest work in legal literature, ''Mitakshara'' is a commentary on ''Yajnavalkya'' and is a treatise on law based on earlier writings and has found acceptance in most parts of India. Englishman Henry Thomas Colebrooke later translated into English the section on inheritance, giving it currency in the British Indian court system.Sastri (1955), p. 324 It was during the Western Chalukya rule that the Bhakti movement gained momentum in South India, in the form of Ramanujacharya and Basavanna, later spreading into northern India. A celebration called ''Chalukya utsava'', a three-day festival of music and dance, organised by the
Government of Karnataka The Government of Karnataka, abbreviated as, GoK, or simply Karnataka Government, is a democratically-elected state body with the governor as the ceremonial head to govern the Southwest Indian state of Karnataka. The governor who is appoint ...
, is held every year at Pattadakal, Badami and Aihole. The event is a celebration of the achievements of the Chalukyas in the realm of art, craft, music and dance. The program, which starts at Pattadakal and ends in Aihole, is inaugurated by the
Chief Minister of Karnataka The Chief minister (India), chief minister of Karnataka, formerly known as the chief minister of Mysore, is the Head of government, chief executive officer of the Government of Karnataka, government of the India, Indian state of Karnataka. As pe ...
. Singers, dancers, poets and other artists from all over the country take part in this event. In the 2006 celebration, 400 art troupes took part in the festivities. Colorful cutouts of the '' Varaha'' the Chalukya emblem, ''Satyashraya'' Pulakeshin (Pulakeshin II), famous sculptural masterpieces such as
Durga Durga ( sa, दुर्गा, ) is a major Hindu goddess, worshipped as a principal aspect of the mother goddess Mahadevi. She is associated with protection, strength, motherhood, destruction, and wars. Durga's legend centres around c ...
, Mahishasuramardhini (Durga killing demon Mahishasura) were present everywhere. The program at Pattadakal is named ''Anivaritacharigund vedike'' after the famous architect of the Virupaksha temple,
Gundan Anivaritachari Sri Gundan Anivaritachari was the chief architect of the Virupaksha temple, the most famous and centerpiece at world heritage temple complex at Pattadakal. According to inscriptions he held such titles as "Anikapuravastu Pitamaha" and "Tenkana ...
. At Badami it is called ''Chalukya Vijayambika Vedike'' and at Aihole, ''Ravikirti Vedike'' after the famous poet and minister (Ravikirti) in the court of Pulakeshin II. ''
Immadi Pulikeshi Pulakeshin II (IAST: Pulakeśin, r. c. 610–642 CE) was the most famous ruler of the Chalukya dynasty of Vatapi (present-day Badami in Karnataka, India). During his reign, the Chalukya kingdom expanded to cover most of the Deccan region in pe ...
'', a
Kannada Kannada (; ಕನ್ನಡ, ), originally romanised Canarese, is a Dravidian language spoken predominantly by the people of Karnataka in southwestern India, with minorities in all neighbouring states. It has around 47 million native s ...
movie of the 1960s starring Dr. Rajkumar celebrates the life and times of the great king.


See also

* Eastern Chalukyas * Western Chalukyas *
Chalukya Cholas The Later Chola dynasty ruled the Chola Empire from 1070 C.E. until the demise of the empire in 1279 C. E. This dynasty was the product of decades of alliances based on marriages between the Cholas and the Eastern Chalukyas based in Vengi, and ...
* Hoysala Empire *
Chola dynasty The Chola dynasty was a Tamil thalassocratic empire of southern India and one of the longest-ruling dynasties in the history of the world. The earliest datable references to the Chola are from inscriptions dated to the 3rd century BC ...
*
Kamboi Kamboi is a town located in Chanasma taluka, in Patan district, in the modern Indian state of Gujarat. It is west of Chanasma on the Harij- Mehsana road. It uses the postcode number of 384230. History Historian R. C. Majumdar describes Ka ...
* Kamboja


Notes and references


References

Books * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Web * * *


External links

* * * * *
Chalukyas of Kalyana (973–1198 CE)
by Dr. Jyotsna Kamat * {{Authority control States and territories established in the 540s States and territories disestablished in the 8th century Dynasties of India Hindu dynasties Empires and kingdoms of India History of Karnataka Former countries in South Asia Former monarchies of South Asia 543 establishments 6th-century establishments in India 753 disestablishments 8th-century disestablishments in India History of Marathwada