Cebuano grammar

Cebuano grammar encompasses the rules that define the Cebuano language, the most widely spoken of all the languages in the Visayan Group of languages, spoken in Cebu, Bohol, Siquijor, part of Leyte island, part of Samar island, Negros Oriental, especially in Dumaguete, and the majority of cities and provinces of Mindanao.

Cebuano has eight basic parts of speech: nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, particles, prepositions and conjunctions. Cebuano is an agglutinative yet partially inflected language: pronouns are inflected by number, and verbs are inflected for aspect, focus, and mood.

Morphosyntactic alignment

Cebuano, along with many other Philippine languages, are sometimes considered ergative or nominative in alignment, both being incorrect and correct as it has features of both systems.

Cebuano verbs are morphologically complex and take on a variety of affixes reflecting ''voice'', ''quality'', ''aspect'', ''mood'', and others. Cebuano arguably follows Austronesian alignment. Basically, verbs conjugate by using these affixes according to which argumentative role the noun in the direct case has. This noun in the direct case can be the doer of the action, the recipient of the action, the purpose for the action, or the means by which the action was made possible; which are all argumentative roles. The direct case hides the noun's otherwise-evident argumentative role, which the verb then makes up for by conjugating with specific affixes that indicate which argumentative role the noun in the direct case has. Some Cebuano grammar teachers call the noun in the direct case the ''topic'' of the sentence, but some others call it the ''focus, voice,'' or ''trigger''; as the verb and the other nouns in the sentence have all their noun markers and affixes change accordingly.

Cebuano has four voices:
# the active voice a.k.a. ''the agent trigger''
# the passive voice for direct objects a.k.a. ''the patient trigger''
# the passive voice for indirect objects and/or locations a.k.a. ''the'' ''circumstantial trigger''
# the passive voice for instruments a.k.a. ''the instrument trigger''.

The direct case morpheme, which marks the topic in Cebuano, is ''ang'' or ''si''.

Agent trigger

Here, the agent/doer ''Maria'' is marked with ''si'', the personal direct noun marker. The prefix ''Mo-'' indicates that the noun in the direct case (''Maria'') is also the agent/doer, which would not have been known otherwise.

Patient trigger

Here, the patient/object ''Bugas'' is marked with ''ang'', the general direct noun marker. The suffix ''-on'' indicates that the noun in the direct case (''bugas'') is also the patient/object, which would not have been known otherwise. ''Babaye'' is marked with ''sa'', the general indirect noun marker which indicates that ''babaye'' is not in the direct case but is still the agent/doer of the sentence. Via context and common word order, it is evident that ''lata'' is not the agent despite it being marked with ''sa'' as well (in this case, it is used as the general oblique definite noun marker). It is not the first noun in the sentence (as the agent/doer usually is) and nor can a can cook rice on its own (context).

Circumstantial trigger

The circumstantial trigger affixes select for location, benefactee and/or goal topics.

With location subject

Here, the location/indirect object ''lata'' is marked with ''ang'', the general direct noun marker. The suffix ''-an'' indicates that the noun in the direct case (''lata'') is also the location of the action, which would not have been known otherwise. ''Babaye'' is marked with ''sa'', the general indirect noun marker which indicates that ''babaye'' is not in the direct case but is still the agent of the sentence. ''Bugas'' is marked with the general oblique indefinite marker ''og'', indicating that it is neither the noun in the direct case nor the agent noun, but rather that it is the direct object of the sentence.

With benefactee subject

Here, the indirect object or ''benefactee'' ''Pedro'' is marked with ''si'', the personal direct noun marker. The suffix ''-an'' indicates that the noun in the direct case (''Pedro'') is also the indirect object of the action, which would not have been known otherwise. ''Maria'' is marked with the personal indirect noun marker ''ni'', which indicates that ''Maria'' is not the noun in the direct case but is still the agent of the sentence. ''Kalamay'' is marked with the general oblique indefinite marker ''og'', indicating that ''kalamay'' is neither the noun in the direct case nor the agent/doer, but rather, it is the direct object.

With goal subject

Here, it is similar to the ''circumstantial trigger'' (with benefactee subject) in that the goal subject ''Perla'' is also the indirect object of the sentence. ''Perla'' is marked by ''si'', the personal direct noun marker, and is known to be the indirect object of the sentence due to the verb suffix ''-an'', which indicates that the noun in the direct case would be the indirect object of the sentence.

Instrument trigger

Here, the instrument ''lapis'' is marked with ''ang'', the general direct noun marker. The prefix ''I-'' indicates that the noun in the direct case (''lapis'') is also the instrument used to complete the action, which would not have been known otherwise. ''Linda'' is marked with the personal indirect noun marker ''ni'', which indicates that ''Linda'' is not the noun in the direct case, yet is still the agent of the sentence. ''Sulat'' is marked with the general oblique indefinite marker ''og'', indicating that ''sulat'' is neither the noun in the direct case nor the agent/doer, but rather, it is the direct object.

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Pronouns are inflected for person, number and case. No gender distinctions are made for the third person singular: ''he,'' ''she,'' and ''they'' (singular) are all translated in Cebuano as ''siya''.

The three cases are direct, indirect, and oblique. The noun markers and pronouns follow their own particular set of rules for syntax and grammar.

The indirect case also functions as a genitive.

* ''Postposed'' meaning it comes after the noun: ''iro nako'' (my dog).
* ''Preposed'' meaning it comes before the noun: ''akong iro'' (my dog).

Usage of full and short forms

The short forms are used most often in conversation. However, the full forms ''must'' be used when they occur on their own as a predicate.

Examples (Those marked with an asterisk, "*", are ungrammatical):

But...
Ako si Juan.
Ako mao'y moadto ngadto sa Banawa.

First person plural: clusivity

In Cebuano, like most other Austronesian languages, the first person plural forms encode clusivity. This distinction, not found in most European languages, signifies whether or not the addressee is included.

Demonstratives

Cebuano demonstratives are as follows:

Adverbs

Deictics

Deictics, words such as ''here'' and ''there'', reference locations between the speaker and addressee. In addition to the same four-way distinction of proximity for demonstratives (''near speaker'', ''near speaker and addressee'', ''near addressee'' and ''remote''), deictics can express three tenses:

* Present: "X is here/there now"
* Past: "X was here/there"
* Future: "X will be here/there"

The present and future tense forms can precede or follow the words or phrases they modify by linking with nga. The past tense forms, however, only have a past meaning if they precede their words or phrases. If they follow, they convey no tense.

The allative forms are always tenseless. They follow the words or phrases they modify and can substitute equivalent past forms. In addition, they show movement or motion to the relative location which past forms cannot.

Nouns

Cebuano nouns fall into of two classes: ''personal'' and ''general''. Personal nouns refer to persons or personified objects and animals and names. All other nouns fall into the general category. Nouns do not inflect for case or number: Case is shown using case markers; the plural number is show with the particle ''mga''.

Case

Cebuano nouns assume three cases based on their role in a sentence:
* Direct – This is the case of focus or topic. This case is used in both actor-focus and non-actor focus verb forms. This case follows the Austronesian alignment. The verb partly conjugates according to the argumentative role inherit within the noun that is marked by this case.
* Indirect – This is the case of the actor/agent/doer in non-actor focus verb forms. This is also the case of possession/ownership and works similar to the genitive case.
*Oblique – A peripheral case; this is the case of the indirect object, the direct object, and/or the instrument in both actor-focus verb sentences and non-actor focus verb sentences, when the noun it modifies is also not the focus/topic. It is used to mention anything beyond the topic or focus other than the indirect case that might still be important for context and communication. Simply put, it is to mark any noun that is neither the actor/agent/doer nor the topic/focus of the sentence.

^† ''These words are already considered archaic but survive as the affix -y, as in "sila'y niadto" or "unsa'y ato".''

The use of ''sa'' vs. ''og'' in the indirect and oblique case is a matter of definiteness when the noun is the object of an actor-focus verb. Compare the following examples.

# efiniteMipalit si Juan sa sakyanan. ''John bought the car.''
# ndefiniteMipalit si Juan og sakyanan. ''John bought a car.''

In example sentence 1, the car that John bought is particular. It may have been a car he was thinking about buying or one that the speaker was selling John. In 2, the speaker may or may not know the specifics about the car in question.

''Sa'' and ''og'' can both be used for the roles of the genitive case, but only ''sa'' can be used for the actor or agent case. ''Og'' is used for adverbs as well.

Number

Plurality is shown by preceding the noun with the particle ''mga'' /maŋa/.

There are special cases though:

1. Adding the prefix ''ka-'' before and the suffix ''-an'' can pluralize a noun (the suffix ''-han'' is used if the root word ends with a vowel). This word treatment is used to group what are considered identical objects as one entity. Examples are:
*''libot'', which is regularly used as a verb meaning ''to go around'' but in this case is used as a noun meaning "surrounding" (as in ''palibot''), can be changed to ''kalibotan'', which means "world" (or 'the entire surroundings').
*''tawo'', which means "man" or "person", can be changed to ''katawhan'', which means "men" or "people". The vowel "o" is omitted in this case because the "w" carries the sound of "o" by itself.
*''balay'' (house): ''kabalayan'' (houses)
*''bata'' (child/boy/girl): ''kabata-an''. The suffix used here is ''-an'' instead of ''-han'' since ''bata'' /bataÊ”/ ends in a glottal stop.
*"nasud" (nation): "kanasuran" (nations). The "d" changed to "r" because that usually (not always) happens to "d" when placed between two vowels, though in Cebuano, ''d'' and ''r'' are not allophones, unlike in other Philippine languages.

Although it is tolerable in some cases, the use of ''mga'' before a noun applied with ''ka- -an'' is not necessary anymore. ''ang mga kabata-an'' (the children) is considered redundant, and ''ang kabata-an'' is more grammatically accurate.

Because the use of ''ka- -an'' groups objects into one entity, there are cases that a word will mean a place of which the objects are frequently or usually found/exist. An example is:
*''kasagingan'' (from the root word ''saging'' (banana)) does not mean "bananas". Instead, it means 'a place of bananas' or simply "banana farm".

2. There is this very rare case in which an adjective can be pluralized, and the noun it describes can be, but is not necessarily, omitted.
Example: the word ''gamay'' (small) can be changed to ''gagmay'' (small ones), in which "g" was inserted in between the first and second syllable. The same rule can be applied to ''dako'', which means 'big', changing it to ''dagko'' (big ones). Other examples are:
*''ta-as'' (long): ''tag-as'' (long ones)
*''mubo'' (short): ''mugbo'' (short ones)
*''layo'' (far): ''lagyo'' (far ones)
*''du-ol'' (near): ''dug-ol'' (near ones)
*''nipis'' (thin): ''nigpis'' (thin ones)
*''lapad'' (wide): ''lagpad'' (wide ones)

This rule cannot be applied to all other adjectives.

Gender

As a rule, Cebuano does not categorize nouns by gender. Natural gender is found in Spanish loanwords and some native words, including words with Spanish-derived gendered affixes.

Adjectives

Plural forms

Adjectives do not inflect for the plural. Common adjectives of measurement, however, have a plural form characterized by the infixation of /g/.

Comparative

In comparing two similar items, the comparative form indicates that one has a higher degree (or lower degree) of the quality expressed by the root, e.g., ''bigger'', ''smaller'', ''greater'', etc.

The comparative degree is expressed in the following ways:
* Precede the adjective with ''labi pa'' ("more till)
* Precede the adjective with the particle ''mas'' (from Spanish ''más'')

Comparative superlative

The comparative superlative indicates the maximum degree of the quality expressed in comparison to other items. In Cebuano this degree can be expressed by a circumfix, ''kina- -an'' or by the use of the particle ''labi'' (most). The prefix ''pinaka-'' is also used.

Absolute superlative

The absolute superlative is the form used in exclamations, for example, "''How pretty you are!''", and denote the extreme quality of the root.

It is formed by prefixing ''pagka-'' or ''ka-'' (short form) to the root. The subject follows in the ''oblique''.

Examples:
Pagkanindot kanimo! (Full)
Kanindot nimo! (Short)
''How pretty you are! You are extremely pretty!''

Intensive

To express intensity, adjectives are followed by ''kaayo'' (very).

Examples:
Ang mga duwende mugbo kaayo.
''Dwarves are'' very ''short''.

Linkers

Nga

The linker ''nga'' (pronounced /ŋa/) shows the relationship between modifiers to the head of the phrase. Examples of such relationships are adjective–noun, clause–noun, adverb–verb, adverb–adjective and noun–noun. Without the intervening linker, juxtaposition of modifier and head can constitute, not a phrase, but a sentence unto itself.
Compare the phrase ''ang batang lalaki'' ("the/a young man/boy") and the sentence ''ang bata lalaki'' though the particle "''kay''" is usually inserted in between to make things clear; ''ang bata kay lalaki'' ("the child is male" or "the child is a boy").

After words that end in a monophthong, diphthong or ''-n'', ''nga'' is optionally reduced to the suffix ''-ng'' /-Å‹/.

Unlike Tagalog, which uses the linker ''na'' for all modifiers, including numbers, the Cebuano linker ''nga'' is not used with numbers; ''ka'', as shown below, is used instead.

Ka

The linker ''ka'' is used to link a number and the phrase it modifies. ''Buok'' (whole) is sometimes used with ''ka''.

Enclitic particles

Cebuano uses a lot of particles that could change the intended meaning or expression of a sentence. Here is a list of particles used in day-to-day conversation:

# ''na'': references a past situation to the present
#* (in positive statements): now, already
#*: ''aduna na/naa na'' — it now exists
#*:: (nuance: ''it didn't exist before'')
#* (in negative statements): anymore
#*: ''walâ na'' — it doesn't exist anymore
#*:: (nuance: ''it existed before'')
# ''pa'': references a future situation to the present
#* (in positive statements): still
#*: ''aduna pa/naa pa'' — it still exists
#*:: (nuance: ''it will not exist sometime after'')
#* (in negative statements): yet
#*: ''walâ pa'' — it doesn't exist yet
#*:: (nuance: ''it will exist sometime after)
# ''ba'': used for yes-and-no questions and optionally for other types of questions.
# ''ra/da'' and ''lang/lamanɡ'': limiting particle; just, only.
# ''gyud/gayúd'',''gyud'' is pronounced as Í¡Ê’udor jud In informal communications, it is also occasionally written as ''jud'' ''bitáw'', ''lagí'', ''gánì'':''gánì'' can also be ''gálì'', and may be pronounced as ¡ai̯ʔ/ref> indeed; used in affirmations or emphasis.
# ''usáb'',The ''u'' in ''usab'', ''upod'', and ''ugod'', as in many other words beginning with ''u'', are frequently dropped, making it ''sab'', ''pod'', and ''god''; in spoken Cebuano, ''sad'' is often used instead of ''sab''. ''upód'': also, too
# ''man'', ''ugód'': expresses (new) information, or contradicts a previous statement
# ''uróy'': corrects a (supposed) misconception
#: person 1: ''walâ pa ka mahumán?'' — aren't you done yet?
#: person 2: ''humán na uróy!'' — I am!
# ''bayâ'': expresses admonition; watch out
#: ''mamaak bayâ na'ng iroa'' — watch out! that dog bites
# ''diáy'': indicates that the speaker has received new information
# ''dà'':
#* (''initial in a clause''): there, I told you so!
#*: '' dà, nasamad hinuon'' — I told you! now you've hurt yourself
#* (''ending a clause''): expresses sudden, unexpected, or unwanted emotion; as when remembering something forgotten
#*: ''gitugnaw ko dà!'' — I feel cold! (nuance: ''I didn't expect to become cold'')
# ''kunó'', ''daw'': indicates second-hand information; he said, it is said, reportedly, allegedly, etc.
# ''guro/siguro'', ''tingálì'':informally pronounced as iˈŋai̯ʔ/ref> expresses uncertainty; probably, maybe
# ''kahâ/kayhâ'': expresses wonder; I wonder, perhaps
# ''úntà/máytà'' (short for "''maayo úntà''"): expresses hope; I hope
# ''kay'': indicates cause; because.
#* also used as a linking word in sentences with Subject-Predicate structure (compare "is/was/be" in English)
#*: ''si Maria kay nabuntis'' — Maria was pregnant
# ''maó'': (it/he/she) is/was/will be the one...
#: ''si Maria maó'y nabuntis'' — it was Maria who got pregnant
# ''gánì'': even
# ''bisan'': even though, even if, although
# ''hinuon'' (shortened to "''nuon''"): instead, however, rather; as a result
# ''úsà'': for now, for the time being
# ''intawon'': expresses pity
# ''puhón'': God willing, in the future

The following are particles that are usually only found at the end of a sentence:
# ''ha'': asks listener if they understand, or if they agree
#: ''dilì ni sabunán, ha?'' — don’t wash this with soap, do you understand?
# ''no'', ''sa'' (from "''unsá''" meaning "what?"): asks to clarify; isn't that right?
#: ''dilì ka moinom, no?'' — you don't drink liquor, do you?
# ''ay'':''ay'' and ''uy/oy'' also function as interjections when found at the beginning of sentences; ''ay'' roughly translates to ''oh'' or ''oops'' in English, while ''uy/oy'' could mean ''hey/oi'' follows a word to call someone's attention to it
#: ''tua sa iskina ay!'' — it’s right there at the corner!
# ''uy/oy'':
#* expresses annoyance
#* expresses surprise upon discovering something

These particles can be paired with one or more particles to form a more specific meaning. One exception is with ''na'' and ''pa'', which cannot be used in the same sentence.
# ''maó'' + ''ra'' + ''og'' = ''murag'': like, seemingly
# ''maó'' + ''gyud/bitáw/lagí/gánì'': that is so; strongly affirming a statement
# ''maó'' + ''ra'' + ''pud'' + ''nuon'': that’s the only thing that’s wrong with it
# ''ba'' + ''gud'': expresses disbelief; how is it possible that (so-and-so) should happen?
# ''na'' + ''lang'': now it is only (so-and-so much) when it was more before; (so-and-so) will do it, though it should not be so
# ''pa'' + ''lang'': (such-and-such) was the first; lest (so-and-so) happen; if (so-and-so) had been the case
# ''etc.''

Interrogatives

*''Unsa?'' What?
*''Asa?'' Where? (esp. for a place or person)
*''Diin?'', ''Dis-a?'' Where? (esp. for past occurrence)
*''Hain?'', ''Saa/Asa?'' Where? (esp. for an object)
*''Kinsa?'' Who?
*''Kang kinsa?'' To whom?
*''Ngano?'' Why?
*''Giunsa?'' How? (past)
*''Unsaon?'' How? (future)
*''Kanus-a?'' When?
*''Pila (ka buok)?'' How many?
*''Tagpila?'' How much?
*''Ikapila?'' What order?
*''Di-ay ba?'' Really?

The words ''asa'', ''diin'', and ''hain'' can be used interchangeably in everyday speech. Although their use is distinguished in formal contexts:

''Asa'' is used when asking about a place.
*''Asa ka padulong?'' (Where are you going?)
*''Asa ta molarga?'' (Where are we traveling to?)

''Hain'' is used when asking about the location of a thing.
*''Hain ang gunting?'' (Where is the pair of scissors?)
*''Hain na ang pagka-on sa pista?'' (Where is the food for the festival)

It is worth noting that in spoken Cebuano, ''asa'' has slowly become the main word for ''where''. In fact, ''hain'', except by older generations, is rarely used.

Verbs

Verbs in Cebuano conjugate according to several factors: to divulge/agree with the argumentative role that the noun marked by the direct case has; the voice; the form; the mood; and the aspect/tense of the sentence.

Verb roots vs. verb stems

A ''verb root'' is the simplest version of a verb that conveys its overall meaning or lemma and cannot be broken down any further (excluding morphological processes and colloquial speech).

The affixes that are used to altogether describe the argumentative role, the voice, the form, the mood, and the aspect/tense cannot be added to the ''verb root'', only to the ''verb stem''.

The ''verb stem'' may be created through the addition of certain affixes that are not related to the affixes used to altogether describe the argumentative role, the voice, the form, the mood, and the aspect/tense of the sentence. Sometimes, the ''verb stem'' is identical to the ''verb root.''

A commonly known verb stem affix is the prefix ''pa-'', added to the beginning of a ''verb root'' (and sometimes, other ''verb stems'') in order to convey the meaning of ''to cause''. For example, ''padala'' is a ''verb stem'' that has the meaning of ''to send'', while ''dala'' is its own ''verb root'' and ''verb stem,'' meaning ''to bring.'' Concluding that ''padala'' could literally mean ''to cause to bring''. Another commonly known affix is the prefix ''hi-'' which is added to ''verb roots/stems'' in the s''tative form'' so that the verb may take in a d''irect object'', as verbs in the s''tative form'' are not able to take a direct object without it.

The moods, forms, and aspects/tenses

Verbs in Cebuano not only conjugate according to the argumentative role of the noun that is marked by the direct case, but also according to the ''voice'', the ''form'', the ''mood'', and the ''aspect/tense'' of the sentence. Cebuano verbs conjugate accordingly through the use of affixes on the ''verb stem''.

Mood

There are three moods that the verbal affixes may pertain to in the Cebuano language. The three moods are:

The indicative mood

This is the default mood of verbs in which the action is most commonly described. This mood ''does'' have ''imperative aspects'' in only some certain ''forms''.

The mirative mood

This is the mood where the action is unexpected or unintended. There is no ''imperative aspect'' for this mood. This mood is used differently in Cebuano than its usual use, see mirative mood. Some may describe this mood as dubitative or subjunctive.

The potential mood

This is the mood where the action is able to happen or allowed to happen. This mood may also be used to convey a statement or general possibility. There is no ''imperative aspect'' for this mood.

The prefixes ''naka-'' and ''maka-'' (mostly used for this mood) may be shortened to ''ka-'' in colloquial speech and in colloquial writing, which gets rid of the aspect/tense found within these prefixes. Similarly, the prefixes ''naga-'' and ''maga-'' are colloquially shortened to ''ga-'', however, ''ga-'' is usually considered as past and/or strictly present tense.

Form

There are four ''forms'' that the verbal affixes may pertain to in the Cebuano language. The four forms are:

The intentional form

This is the form where the action was, is, or will be instantly completed. Usually, the affixes of this form hint at a sort of intention or will to do the action/verb. This form is also the form where the action may just be a statement.

The durative form

This is the form where the action takes place over a duration of time. See durative aspect.

The stative form

This is the form where the action expresses the state of being, condition, and/or emotion of a subject/object. This mood also may express a change going on within someone/something. Usually, verbs that express this mood cannot take in ''direct objects'' unless the prefix ''hi-'' is added to the original ''verb stem'', creating a new verb stem that allows direct objects to be taken in.

The reciprocal form

This is the form where the action is being reciprocated between two persons/things to each other.

Tense vs. aspect

Cebuano generally does not use ''tense'', rather it uses ''aspect''. Cebuano verbs conjugate according to a ''voice'', a ''mood'', a ''form'', and an ''aspect''. According to the functionalist school of grammar, there are two aspects: the ''nasugdan'' ( incepted ast/present inchoative aspect and the ''pagasugdan'' ( incepting uture/habitual inchoative aspect. They claim that Cebuano verbs feature the aspects of inception; that is whether the action has been initiated or not.

The ''nasugdan'' aspect is the aspect where the action had already started in the past, while the ''pagasugda''n aspect is the aspect where the action has not started yet. Basically, past and present actions are in the ''nasugdan'' aspect while future actions and habitual actions are in the ''pagasugdan'' aspect. Although habitual actions started in the past, they have yet to start again. Hence, they are in the ''pagasugdan'' aspect.

The '' imperatibo'' (imperative/command) mood is commonly grouped together with these aspects (and not with the other moods) because there are multiple imperatives of the same verb that exist according to which ''form'' is in use.

In Cebuano, verbs may also conjugate for or to agree with '' negatibo'' (negative) sentences. However, the verb itself is not negative, it just '' agrees'' with the negative words ''wala'' and ''dili'' through the ''negatibo'' verbal affixes. ''Wala'' is used for the ''nasugdan'' aspect and ''dili'' is used for the ''pagasugdan'' aspect. ''Ayaw'' is used as the negative imperative, see prohibitive mood.

The verbal affixes

The verbal affixes that feature altogether the voice, mood, form, and aspect may overlap. Some of these affixes are shortened in speech and in informal writing.

Not all groups of affixes can be used for some verbs; some verbs may not make sense with certain groups of affixes. For example, the verb stem ''anhi'' (to come) cannot have any of the passive voices' affixes; it would not make sense with such affixes.

The only way to know which groups of affixes are able to be used for each verb stem are through memorization/experience. In addition to that, in certain verbs, the affixes take on different meanings and may overlap or replace other affixes in different ''forms'' due to historical use. For example, the verb stem ''buak'' (to break) uses the same affixes that is used in the ''potential mood'' as the affixes used for the ''transitory form'' in the ''indicative mood''. Using the normal affixes of the ''transitory form'' in the active voice for ''buak'' would sound incorrect to native speakers. Despite all that, the way the affixes are labeled are the way they are mostly used regardless.

Some affixes may be missing from the examples.

Active voice affixes

The active voice in Cebuano (a.k.a. ''the agent trigger'') is the voice where the ''topic'' of the sentence is the ''agent'' (a.k.a. ''the doer, the subject, the actor'') of the sentence. The verb partly conjugates according to the fact that the ''agent'' is the ''topic''. All ''active voice affixes'' are actually prefixes.

These affixes not only have the essence that they are instantaneous, but they also have the essence of intention; that the topic willed for it to happen. It also has the essence of motion or movement. The prefix ''mi-'' is more formal than ''ni-''; otherwise, they are interchangeable. It is common to use ''pag-'' because it is a common imperative affix in the active voice in Cebuano.

With verb stems like ''adto'', ''mo-'' may sometimes be used as the ''nasugdan'' aspect because although it started in the past and may still be going on, the destination may not have been reached yet. ''Adto'' also means ''to go'', and when used in the present tense, it is understandable that it may use ''mo-'' for a ''nasugdan'' aspect.

The prefixes ''naga-'' and ''maga-'' may be shortened to ''ga-'' in colloquial speech and in colloquial writing, which may indicate a lack of aspect but it still preserves the form. Some argue that the difference between ''nag-'' and ''mag-'' versus ''naga-'' and ''maga-'' are either in formality (''naga-'' and ''maga-'' being more formal) or in tense (''naga-'' being more in the present and ''nag-'' being more in the past, while ''maga-'' and ''mag-'' are interchangeable).

The prefixes ''naka-'' and ''maka-'' may be shortened to ''ka-'' in colloquial speech and in colloquial writing, which may get rid of the aspect within the prefixes. This could be similar to ''naga-'' and ''maga-'' being shortened to ''ga-''.

Plurality depends on whether the topic is a plural noun. The topic may be the subject, the object, etc., however, because this is the active voice, the topic should always be the Subject with these plural affixes. As long as the subjects are plural, the plural version is usually used, but this is not always mandatory. Some verbs only use the plural version while other verbs are rarely used in their plural versions.

* The "ng" in ''nang-'' and ''mang-'' may change to "m" or "n" or delete the next consonant depending on the succeeding consonant. Refer to the ''Morphological Process of Assimilation'' in Cebuano for more information.

Sometimes ''pang-'' is used as the plural version of the imperatibo mood.

the ''stative form'' does not have a ''potential mood''. The ''hi-'' prefix before ''gugma'' is necessary for the verb to take in a direct object, so the "imperatibo examples" would imply a direct object. The ''nagka-'' and ''magka-'' prefixes are different from the ''na-'' and ''ma-'' in that they have the essence of a slowly but surely, or steady, change that is occurring within the topic. They are not used as often anymore, so the same essence may be achieved with the ''na-'' and ''ma-'' prefixes nowadays. However, ''pagka-'' just has more emphasis than ''ka-'' may have, and ''pagka-'' is still commonly used today. The ''mirative mood'' with the ''nagka-'' and ''magka-'' prefixes is no longer known nor used. The plural prefixes ''nang-'' and ''mang-'' become ''nanga-'' and ''manga-'' if the verb also includes these prefixes: ''na-'', ''ma-'', and ''ka-''. For example, "''Nangahigugma kami kanimo,''" which means "''We love you.''"

The ''reciprocal form'' does not have a ''potential mood''. This form is not in common use anymore.

Passive voice for direct objects affixes

The ''passive voice for direct objects'' in Cebuano (a.k.a. ''the patient trigger'') is the voice where the ''topic'' of the sentence is the ''direct object'' (a.k.a. ''the patient, the goal, etc.'') of the sentence. Hence, the verb partly conjugates accordingly.

* ''Imnon'' and ''Imna'' went through some of the ''morphological processes'' in Cebuano. The ''mirative'' and ''potential moods'' are the same for these forms of affixes. In the ''"negatibo aspect,"'' the indirect personal pronouns are usually put before the verb. A noun in the indirect case, or a proper noun in the indirect case, would both be put after the verb. For example, "''Dili imnon sa iring ang gatas.''" which means "''The milk will not be drunk by the cat.''"

Passive voice for indirect objects affixes

The ''passive voice for indirect objects'' in Cebuano (a.k.a. ''the circumstantial triggers'') is the voice where the ''topic'' of the sentence is the ''indirect object'' (a.k.a. ''the benefactee, the location, the goal, etc.'') of the sentence. Hence, the verb partly conjugates accordingly.

In the examples, the topic is the dog (the ''indirect object'') and it is used as the topic to emphasize that the dog got the gift, nothing else. In context, a person may say this to you when you are confused about whom/what you should get the gift for. Perhaps there is a cat and a dog and the person clarifies that you got/get/will get/should get a gift for the dog (and not the cat).

Passive voice for instruments affixes

The ''passive voice for instruments'' (a.k.a. ''the instrumental trigger'') is the voice where the ''topic'' of the sentence is the ''instrument'' of the sentence. The ''instrument'' is the noun that is used for the action of the sentence.

The prefix ''gi-'' may also be used/confused with ''the intentional and durative forms'''s affixes in the ''passive voice of direct objects''.

There are over 2000 different verbs in Cebuano to choose from and to use. There are many more affixes that can be used for verb roots, verb stems, and new words.se

/ref>

Negation

Words for negation in Cebuano acts as a verb.

Syntax

Sentences

1) Equational (topic = predicate) – In this sentence type, one can interchange the topic and the predicate without changing the thought of the sentence.

a) "" = This is the Visayas.
b) "" = We speak Cebuano here.
c) "" = Do you know how to speak Cebuano?

2) Non-equational (topic < predicate) – In this sentence type, the topic and the predicate are not interchangeable.

a) "" = Visayans are Filipinos.
b) "" = What do you need?
c) "" = How are the politics?

3) Existential sentence of presence – Sentences of this type tells the existence of a thing or idea.

a) "" = There is a God in heaven.
b) "" = There was a snake in the tree.

4) Existential sentence of possession – Sentences of this type tell about someone or something possessing something.

a) "" = The angels in heaven have a God.
b) "" = I have something to drink at home.

5) Locative sentence – This type of sentence tells the location of a thing.

a) "" = Here is the money.
b) "" = He/she is on the mountain.

6) Meteorologic sentence – This type of sentence tells about weather condition, noise level, etc., of a place.

a) "" = It is cold here in Baguio.
b) "" = The weather is very hot here in Cebu.

7) Exclamatory remark – Praises and unexpected discoveries belong here.

a) "" = You have plenty of cars!
b) "" = You are pretty!
c) "" = You are so noisy!

8) Imperatives – Commands and requests.

a) "" = Grill that fish.
b) "" = Come here.
c) "" = Do not smoke here.

9) Interrogatives – Questions that are not answerable by yes or no.

a) "" = Who are you?
b) "" = What is your name?

10) Confirmation – Questions that are basically answered by yes or no. Constructed like the first six sentence types with the insertion of the particle "ba" as a second term.

a) "" = Is this the Visayas?
b) "" = Do you know how to swim?
c) "" = What language do you speak?
d) "" = Shall this fish be grilled?

Footnotes

References

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External links

*Visayan Academy of Arts and Letters
Academic Papers about Cebuano

{{language grammars
Cebuano language
Austronesian grammars