![Xenophon Cyropaedia](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Xenophon_Cyropaedia.jpg)
The ''Cyropaedia'', sometimes spelled ''Cyropedia'', is a partly fictional biography
of
Cyrus the Great, the founder of Persia's
Achaemenid Empire. It was written around 370 BC by
Xenophon
Xenophon of Athens (; grc, Ξενοφῶν ; – probably 355 or 354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian, born in Athens. At the age of 30, Xenophon was elected commander of one of the biggest Greek mercenary armies o ...
, the
Athenian
Athens ( ; el, Αθήνα, Athína ; grc, Ἀθῆναι, Athênai (pl.) ) is both the capital and largest city of Greece. With a population close to four million, it is also the seventh largest city in the European Union. Athens dominates ...
-born soldier, historian, and student of
Socrates
Socrates (; ; –399 BC) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and among the first moral philosophers of the ethical tradition of thought. An enigmatic figure, Socrates authored no te ...
. The
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
ized title ''Cyropaedia'' derives from the
Greek
Greek may refer to:
Greece
Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe:
*Greeks, an ethnic group.
*Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family.
**Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor ...
''Kúrou paideía'' (), meaning "The Education of Cyrus". Aspects of it would become a model for medieval writers of the genre
mirrors for princes
Mirrors for princes ( la, specula principum) or mirrors of princes, are an educational literary genre, in a loose sense of the word, of political writings during the Early Middle Ages, the High Middle Ages, the late middle ages and the Renaissance. ...
. In turn, the ''Cyropaedia'' strongly influenced the most well-known but atypical of these,
Machiavelli's ''
The Prince
''The Prince'' ( it, Il Principe ; la, De Principatibus) is a 16th-century political treatise written by Italian diplomat and political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli as an instruction guide for new princes and royals. The general theme of ''The ...
'', which affected the rejection of medieval political thinking and development of modern politics.
Format
![Xenophon - ita, Anno Domini MCCCCLXXXXIIII die vero II iulii - 943932](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Xenophon_-_ita%2C_Anno_Domini_MCCCCLXXXXIIII_die_vero_II_iulii_-_943932.jpg)
In substance, the ''Cyropaedia'' is a narrative describing the education of the ideal ruler. It has been interpreted as an early novel, a biography, and a manifesto on leadership. The work is intended to communicate political and moral instruction to its audience, most of whom would have been Athenian elites.
While most scholars note that Xenophon did not write it as a historical text,
the ''Cyropaedia'' does not fit into any known classical genre, only somewhat resembling an early novel.
Its validity as a source of
Achaemenid
The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire (; peo, 𐎧𐏁𐏂, , ), also called the First Persian Empire, was an ancient Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great in 550 BC. Based in Western Asia, it was contemporarily the largest emp ...
history has been repeatedly questioned, and numerous descriptions of events or persons have been found inaccurate.
Despite its limitations, it has been argued that the ''Cyropaedia'' provides a glimpse of
Cyrus the Great's character. It gives an artistic portrayal of Cyrus, which, according to some, could not have been so positive without a historical memory of good leadership. Xenophon (c. 431 – 355 BC) was not a contemporary of Cyrus (c. 580 – 530 BC) and it is likely that some of his information about Persia was based on events that occurred at the later Achaemenid court. Xenophon had visited such as one of the "
Ten Thousand
The Ten Thousand ( grc, οἱ Μύριοι, ''oi Myrioi'') were a force of mercenary units, mainly Greeks, employed by Cyrus the Younger to attempt to wrest the throne of the Persian Empire from his brother, Artaxerxes II. Their march to the Bat ...
" Greek soldiers who fought on the losing side of a Persian civil war, which he recounted in his ''
Anabasis
Anabasis (from Greek ''ana'' = "upward", ''bainein'' = "to step or march") is an expedition from a coastline into the interior of a country. Anabase and Anabasis may also refer to:
History
* ''Anabasis Alexandri'' (''Anabasis of Alexander''), a ...
''.
Content
Book One
The first book's opening states that it began as a reflection about why some rulers are willingly obeyed and others are not. Everywhere, the author observes, humans fail to obey their rulers; the one exception is Cyrus the Great, a man who inspired obedience.
A list of Cyrus's conquests follows, and the author seeks to understand why his subjects obeyed him "willingly." The work narrates his entire life, with only the first of eight books concerning the actual education of Cyrus.
The first book is devoted to Cyrus's descent, education, and stay at the court of his maternal grandfather, the
Median dynast
Astyages. Scholars have noted that Xenophon's description of pre-imperial Persian education is unusual and appears to be based upon the traditions of
Sparta
Sparta ( Doric Greek: Σπάρτα, ''Spártā''; Attic Greek: Σπάρτη, ''Spártē'') was a prominent city-state in Laconia, in ancient Greece. In antiquity, the city-state was known as Lacedaemon (, ), while the name Sparta referre ...
: the subject of Xenophon's other work the ''
Constitution of the Lacedaemonians''.
Books Two to Seven
Books two to seven cover Cyrus's life as a
Median vassal on his path to establishing the world's largest empire. In these books, Cyrus is upheld as an example of classical virtue, but also uses what are now known as
Machiavellian tactics. He proves a faithful vassal to the Medes, initially acting as a general to defend them from the more powerful and assertive
Babylonian empire. He does so by cultivating alliances with nations such as the
Chaldeans,
Hyrcanians,
Cadusians,
Saka
The Saka ( Old Persian: ; Kharoṣṭhī: ; Ancient Egyptian: , ; , old , mod. , ), Shaka (Sanskrit ( Brāhmī): , , ; Sanskrit (Devanāgarī): , ), or Sacae (Ancient Greek: ; Latin: ) were a group of nomadic Iranian peoples who hist ...
, and
Susians. The remaining allies of Babylon include many nations of Asia Minor, as well as a corps of Egyptian infantry.
Croesus of
Lydia acts as general in the two powers' final field battle. Cyrus then returns with an increasingly international army to conquer Babylon. He is able to avoid a long siege by deflecting the course of the river through it, then sending soldiers in over the dry bed during a festival night. The claim that Babylon was conquered on the night of a festival by diverting the
Euphrates River from its channel is also made by
Herodotus
Herodotus ( ; grc, , }; BC) was an ancient Greek historian and geographer
A geographer is a physical scientist, social scientist or humanist whose area of study is geography, the study of Earth's natural environment and human society ...
(1.191).
Book Eight
Book eight is a sketch of Cyrus' kingship and his views of monarchy.
The last section of this book (8.8) also describes the rapid collapse of Cyrus's empire after he died. It has been speculated that this section was written by a later author. Alternatively, it may symbolize Xenophon's theoretical inconsistency concerning his conception of an ideal ruler, or show that Xenophon did not mean to describe an ideal ruler in any simple way. It may also intend to display, rather than undermine, Cyrus's strength as a leader.
Related characters of questionable historical truth appear in the narrative as well. For example, the romance of
Abradatas and
Pantheia
Abradatas (Greek: ; fl. 6th century BC) was a king, probably fictional, of Susa, known to us from Xenophon's partly fictional biography of Cyrus the Great, the '' Cyropaedia''. According to it, he was an ally of the Assyrians against Cyrus the Gr ...
forms much of the narrative's latter half (v.1.3, vi.1.31ff, vi.4.2ff, vii.3.2ff).
Reception
In classical antiquity, the ''Cyropaedia'' was considered the masterpiece of a widely respected and studied author.
Polybius,
Cicero
Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, and academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises that led to the esta ...
,
Tacitus
Publius Cornelius Tacitus, known simply as Tacitus ( , ; – ), was a Roman historian and politician. Tacitus is widely regarded as one of the greatest Roman historians by modern scholars.
The surviving portions of his two major works—the ...
,
Dionysius of Halicarnassus,
Quintilian,
Aulus Gellius and
Longinus
Longinus () is the name given to the unnamed Roman soldier who pierced the side of Jesus with a lance and who in medieval and some modern Christian traditions is described as a convert to Christianity. His name first appeared in the apocryphal G ...
thought highly of Xenophon and his work.
Classical authors believed that he composed the ''Cyropaedia'' in response to the ''
Republic'' of
Plato
Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
or vice versa, and Plato's ''
Laws
Law is a set of rules that are created and are enforceable by social or governmental institutions to regulate behavior,Robertson, ''Crimes against humanity'', 90. with its precise definition a matter of longstanding debate. It has been vari ...
'' seems to allude to the ''Cyropaedia''. Among classical leaders,
Scipio Aemilianus
Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Aemilianus (185–129 BC), known as Scipio Aemilianus or Scipio Africanus the Younger, was a Roman general and statesman noted for his military exploits in the Third Punic War against Carthage and during the ...
is said to have carried a copy with him at all times;
it was also a favorite of
Alexander the Great
Alexander III of Macedon ( grc, Ἀλέξανδρος, Alexandros; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip II to ...
and
Julius Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war, ...
.
Legacy
The ''Cyropaedia'' was rediscovered in
Western Europe
Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's countries and territories vary depending on context.
The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the ancient Mediterranean ...
during the late medieval period as a piece on political virtue and social organization.
It heavily influenced the late medieval and
Renaissance
The Renaissance ( , ) , from , with the same meanings. is a period in European history
The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe (prior to about 800 BC), classical antiquity (800 BC to AD ...
genre known as
mirrors of princes, which gave examples of leadership behavior to educate future rulers.
Giovanni Pontano
Giovanni Pontano (1426–1503), later known as Giovanni Gioviano ( la, Ioannes Iovianus Pontanus), was a humanist and poet from Cerreto di Spoleto, in central Italy. He was the leading figure of the Accademia Pontaniana after the death of Antonio ...
,
Bartolomeo Sacchi,
Leon Battista Alberti
Leon Battista Alberti (; 14 February 1404 – 25 April 1472) was an Italian Renaissance humanist author, artist, architect, poet, priest, linguist, philosopher, and cryptographer; he epitomised the nature of those identified now as polymaths. H ...
and
Baldassare Castiglione
Baldassare Castiglione, Count of Casatico (; 6 December 1478 – 2 February 1529),Dates of birth and death, and cause of the latter, fro, ''Italica'', Rai International online. was an Italian courtier, diplomat, soldier and a prominent Renaissanc ...
treated Cyrus as such an example. However, unlike most mirrors of princes, whether the ''Cyropaedia'' was really intended to describe an ideal ruler is a subject of debate.
The ''Cyropaedia'' continued to be widely read in the early modern period and during the
Enlightenment. Machiavelli's ''The Prince'', which represented a turn toward modern political thinking, was particularly influenced by the ''Cyropaedia'' and represents a more sophisticated reading of Xenophon. It appears critical of his idealistic approach to Cyrus, while also considering Cyrus's deceit and the danger of deceitful leaders part of the ''Cyropaedia''
's message. Many early modern writers after Machiavelli, including
Montaigne,
Montesquieu
Charles Louis de Secondat, Baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (; ; 18 January 168910 February 1755), generally referred to as simply Montesquieu, was a French judge, man of letters, historian, and political philosopher.
He is the princi ...
,
Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment throughout Europe, as well as aspects of the French Revolu ...
,
Bacon,
Jonathan Swift
Jonathan Swift (30 November 1667 – 19 October 1745) was an Anglo-Irish satirist, author, essayist, political pamphleteer (first for the Whigs, then for the Tories), poet, and Anglican cleric who became Dean of St Patrick's Cathedral, Dubl ...
,
Bolingbroke,
Shaftesbury
Shaftesbury () is a town and civil parish in Dorset, England. It is situated on the A30 road, west of Salisbury, near the border with Wiltshire. It is the only significant hilltop settlement in Dorset, being built about above sea level on a ...
,
Edward Gibbon
Edward Gibbon (; 8 May 173716 January 1794) was an English historian, writer, and member of parliament. His most important work, '' The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', published in six volumes between 1776 and 1788, is ...
, and
Benjamin Franklin
Benjamin Franklin ( April 17, 1790) was an American polymath who was active as a writer, scientist, inventor, statesman, diplomat, printer, publisher, and political philosopher. Encyclopædia Britannica, Wood, 2021 Among the leading inte ...
also esteemed Xenophon as a philosopher and historian. The ''Cyropaedia'' was often used to model correct prose in classical
Attic Greek, mastery of which was part of the education of European and American gentlemen in the eighteenth century.
Thomas Jefferson
Thomas Jefferson (April 13, 1743 – July 4, 1826) was an American statesman, diplomat, lawyer, architect, philosopher, and Founding Father who served as the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. He was previously the natio ...
had two copies of the book in his library, possibly for this reason.
In the nineteenth century, Xenophon and the ''Cyropaedia'' began to decline in popularity compared to other classical authors and works. This is partly because its endorsement of monarchy had grown less favorable.
["Xenophon - Legacy , Britannica". ''www.britannica.com''. Retrieved 2021-11-15.] Yet, in the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, Xenophon's work has become more studied and esteemed.
Some present scholars
[Steven D. Anderson, ''Darius the Mede: A Reappraisal'' (Grand Rapids: Amazon/CreateSpace, 2014).] argue that the basic historical events of the ''Cyropaedia'' are more credible than those described in Herodotus’s ''Histories,'' and debate continues over the work's relevance and historical accuracy.
References
Sources
*
*
*
*
roject Gutenberg*
erseus/Tufts University*Sage, Paula Winsor. "Dying in Style: Xenophon's Ideal Leader and the End of the ''Cyropaedia''" T''he Classical Journal'' 90.2 (1994): 161-74
External links
translation By Henry Graham Dakyns*
Manuscripta
Somni
*
{{Authority control
Works by Xenophon
Cultural depictions of Cyrus the Great
Political philosophy in ancient Greece
Biographies about politicians
Books about military personnel