Cyber-physical systems (CPS) are mechanisms controlled and monitored by computer algorithms, tightly integrated with the internet and its users. In cyber-physical systems, physical and software components are deeply intertwined, able to operate on different spatial and temporal scales, exhibit multiple and distinct behavioral modalities, and interact with each other in ways that change with context.Hu, J.; Lennox, B.; Arvin, F.,
Robust formation control for networked robotic systems using Negative Imaginary dynamics
Automatica, 2022. CPS involves

transdisciplinary Transdisciplinarity is an approach that iteratively interweaves knowledge systems, skills, methodologies, values and fields of expertise within inclusive and innovative collaborations that bridge academic disciplines and community perspectives, ...

approaches, merging theory of

cybernetics Cybernetics is the transdisciplinary study of circular causal processes such as feedback and recursion, where the effects of a system's actions (its outputs) return as inputs to that system, influencing subsequent action. It is concerned with ...

mechatronics Mechatronics engineering, also called mechatronics, is the synergistic integration of mechanical, electrical, and computer systems employing mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, electronic engineering and computer engineering, and also ...

, design and process science.Patil T., Rebaioli L., Fassi I.,
Cyber-physical systems for end-of-life management of printed circuit boards and mechatronics products in home automation: A review
Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 2022.Suh, S.C., Carbone, J.N., Eroglu, A.E.: ''Applied Cyber-Physical Systems.'' Springer, 2014. The process control is often referred to as

embedded system An embedded system is a specialized computer system—a combination of a computer processor, computer memory, and input/output peripheral devices—that has a dedicated function within a larger mechanical or electronic system. It is e ...

s. In embedded systems, the emphasis tends to be more on the computational elements, and less on an intense link between the computational and physical elements. CPS is also similar to the

Internet of Things Internet of things (IoT) describes devices with sensors, processing ability, software and other technologies that connect and exchange data with other devices and systems over the Internet or other communication networks. The IoT encompasse ...

(IoT), sharing the same basic architecture; nevertheless, CPS presents a higher combination and coordination between physical and computational elements. Examples of CPS include

smart grid The smart grid is an enhancement of the 20th century electrical grid, using two-way communications and distributed so-called intelligent devices. Two-way flows of electricity and information could improve the delivery network. Research is main ...

, autonomous automobile systems, medical monitoring,

industrial control system An industrial control system (ICS) is an electronic control system and associated instrumentation used for industrial process control. Control systems can range in size from a few modular panel-mounted controllers to large interconnected and in ...

robotics Robotics is the interdisciplinary study and practice of the design, construction, operation, and use of robots. Within mechanical engineering, robotics is the design and construction of the physical structures of robots, while in computer s ...

systems,

recycling Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials and objects. This concept often includes the recovery of energy from waste materials. The recyclability of a material depends on its ability to reacquire the propert ...

and

automatic pilot An autopilot is a system used to control the path of a vehicle without requiring constant manual control by a human operator. Autopilots do not replace human operators. Instead, the autopilot assists the operator's control of the vehicle, allow ...

avionics. Precursors of cyber-physical systems can be found in areas as diverse as aerospace, automotive, chemical processes, civil infrastructure, energy, healthcare, manufacturing, transportation, entertainment, and consumer appliances.Khaitan et al.,
Design Techniques and Applications of Cyber Physical Systems: A Survey
, IEEE Systems Journal, 2014.

Overview

Unlike more traditional

s, a full-fledged CPS is typically designed as a

network Network, networking and networked may refer to: Science and technology * Network theory, the study of graphs as a representation of relations between discrete objects * Network science, an academic field that studies complex networks Mathematics ...

of interacting elements with physical input and output instead of as standalone devices.Hu, J.; Niu, H.; Carrasco, J.; Lennox, B.; Arvin, F.,
Fault-tolerant cooperative navigation of networked UAV swarms for forest fire monitoring
Aerospace Science and Technology, 2022. The notion is closely tied to concepts of robotics and

sensor network Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) refer to networks of spatially dispersed and dedicated sensors that monitor and record the physical conditions of the environment and forward the collected data to a central location. WSNs can measure environmental ...

s with intelligence mechanisms proper of computational intelligence leading the pathway. Ongoing advances in science and engineering improve the link between computational and physical elements by means of intelligent mechanisms, increasing the adaptability, autonomy, efficiency, functionality, reliability, safety, and usability of cyber-physical systems.C.Alippi:
Intelligence for Embedded Systems
'' Springer Verlag, 2014, 283pp, . This will broaden the potential of cyber-physical systems in several directions, including: intervention (e.g., collision avoidance); precision (e.g.,

robotic surgery Robot-assisted surgery or robotic surgery are any types of surgical procedures that are performed using robotic systems. Robotically assisted surgery was developed to try to overcome the limitations of pre-existing minimally-invasive surgical ...

and nano-level manufacturing); operation in dangerous or inaccessible environments (e.g., search and rescue, firefighting, and deep-sea exploration); coordination (e.g.,

air traffic control Air traffic control (ATC) is a service provided by ground-based air traffic controllers who direct aircraft on the ground and through a given section of controlled airspace, and can provide advisory services to aircraft in non-controlled air ...

, war fighting); efficiency (e.g., zero-net energy buildings); and augmentation of human capabilities (e.g. in healthcare monitoring and delivery).

Mobile cyber-physical systems

Mobile cyber-physical systems, in which the physical system under study has inherent mobility, are a prominent subcategory of cyber-physical systems. Examples of mobile physical systems include mobile robotics and electronics transported by humans or animals. The rise in popularity of smartphones has increased interest in the area of mobile cyber-physical systems. Smartphone platforms make ideal mobile cyber-physical systems for a number of reasons, including: * Significant computational resources, such as processing capability, local storage * Multiple sensory input/output devices, such as

touch screen A touchscreen (or touch screen) is a type of electronic visual display, display that can detect touch input from a user. It consists of both an input device (a touch panel) and an output device (a visual display). The touch panel is typically l ...

s, cameras, GPS chips, speakers, microphone,

light sensor Photodetectors, also called photosensors, are devices that detect light or other forms of electromagnetic radiation and convert it into an electrical signal. They are essential in a wide range of applications, from digital imaging and optical c ...

proximity sensor A proximity sensor (often simply prox) is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical contact. A proximity sensor often emits an Electromagnetic field, electromagnetic field or a beam of electromagnetic radiati ...

s * Multiple communication mechanisms, such as

WiFi Wi-Fi () is a family of wireless network protocols based on the IEEE 802.11 family of standards, which are commonly used for Wireless LAN, local area networking of devices and Internet access, allowing nearby digital devices to exchange data by ...

, 4G,

EDGE Edge or EDGE may refer to: Technology Computing * Edge computing, a network load-balancing system * Edge device, an entry point to a computer network * Adobe Edge, a graphical development application * Microsoft Edge, a web browser developed by ...

Bluetooth Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard that is used for exchanging data between fixed and mobile devices over short distances and building personal area networks (PANs). In the most widely used mode, transmission power is li ...

for interconnecting devices to either the Internet, or to other devices *

High-level programming language A high-level programming language is a programming language with strong Abstraction (computer science), abstraction from the details of the computer. In contrast to low-level programming languages, it may use natural language ''elements'', be ea ...

s that enable rapid development of mobile CPS node software, such as

Java Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...

, C#, or

JavaScript JavaScript (), often abbreviated as JS, is a programming language and core technology of the World Wide Web, alongside HTML and CSS. Ninety-nine percent of websites use JavaScript on the client side for webpage behavior. Web browsers have ...

* Readily available application distribution mechanisms, such as

Google Play Store Google Play, also known as the Google Play Store, Play Store, or sometimes the Android Store (and was formerly Android Market), is a digital distribution service operated and developed by Google. It serves as the official app store for certifie ...

and

Apple App Store The App Store is an app marketplace developed and maintained by Apple, for mobile apps on its iOS and iPadOS operating systems. The store allows users to browse and download approved apps developed within Apple's iOS SDK. Apps can be download ...

* End-user maintenance and upkeep, including frequent re-charging of the battery For tasks that require more resources than are locally available, one common mechanism for rapid implementation of smartphone-based mobile cyber-physical system nodes utilizes the network connectivity to link the mobile system with either a server or a cloud environment, enabling complex processing tasks that are impossible under local resource constraints. Examples of mobile cyber-physical systems include applications to track and analyze CO emissions, detect traffic accidents, insurance telematics and provide situational awareness services to first responders, measure traffic, and monitor cardiac patients.

Examples

Common applications of CPS typically fall under sensor-based communication-enabled autonomous systems. For example, many

wireless sensor networks Wireless sensor networks (WSNs) refer to networks of spatially dispersed and dedicated sensors that monitor and record the physical conditions of the environment and forward the collected data to a central location. WSNs can measure environmental ...

monitor some aspect of the environment and relay the processed information to a central node. Other types of CPS include

, autonomous automotive systems, medical monitoring,

process control Industrial process control (IPC) or simply process control is a system used in modern manufacturing which uses the principles of control theory and physical industrial control systems to monitor, control and optimize continuous Industrial processe ...

systems, distributed robotics,

and automatic pilot avionics. A real-world example of such a system is the Distributed Robot Garden at

MIT The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a private research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Established in 1861, MIT has played a significant role in the development of many areas of modern technology and sc ...

in which a team of robots tend a garden of tomato plants. This system combines distributed sensing (each plant is equipped with a sensor node monitoring its status), navigation, manipulation and

wireless network A wireless network is a computer network that uses wireless data connections between network nodes. Wireless networking allows homes, telecommunications networks, and business installations to avoid the costly process of introducing cables int ...

ing. A focus on the control system aspects of CPS that pervade

critical infrastructure Critical infrastructure, or critical national infrastructure (CNI) in the UK, describes infrastructure considered essential by governments for the functioning of a society and economy and deserving of special protection for national security. ...

can be found in the efforts of the

Idaho National Laboratory Idaho National Laboratory (INL) is one of the national laboratories of the United States Department of Energy and is managed by the Battelle Energy Alliance. Historically, the lab has been involved with nuclear research, although the labora ...

and collaborators researching resilient control systems. This effort takes a holistic approach to next generation design, and considers the resilience aspects that are not well quantified, such as cyber security, human interaction and complex interdependencies. Another example is MIT's ongoing CarTel project where a fleet of taxis work by collecting

real-time traffic information Traffic reporting is the near Real-time data, real-time distribution of information about road conditions such as traffic congestion, detours, and traffic collisions. The reports help drivers anticipate and avoid traffic problems. Car App, Traffi ...

in the Boston area. Together with historical data, this information is then used for calculating fastest routes for a given time of the day. CPS are also used in electric grids to perform advanced control, especially in the smart grids context to enhance the integration of distributed renewable generation.The Special remedial action scheme are needed to limit the current flows in the grid when wind farm generation is too high. Distributed CPS are a key solution for this type of issues In industry the cyber-physical systems empowered by

Cloud In meteorology, a cloud is an aerosol consisting of a visible mass of miniature liquid droplets, frozen crystals, or other particles, suspended in the atmosphere of a planetary body or similar space. Water or various other chemicals may ...

technologies have led to novel approachesA. W. Colombo, T. Bangemann, S. Karnouskos, J. Delsing, P. Stluka, R. Harrison, F. Jammes, and J. Lastra:
Industrial Cloud-based Cyber- Physical Systems: The IMC-AESOP Approach
'' Springer Verlag, 2014, . that paved the path to Industry 4.0 as the European Commission IMC-AESOP project with partners such as

Schneider Electric Schneider Electric SE is a French multinational corporation that specializes in digital automation and energy management. Registered as a Societas Europaea, Schneider Electric is a ''Fortune'' Global 500 company, publicly traded on the Euronex ...

, SAP,

Honeywell Honeywell International Inc. is an American publicly traded, multinational conglomerate corporation headquartered in Charlotte, North Carolina. It primarily operates in four areas of business: aerospace, building automation, industrial automa ...

Microsoft Microsoft Corporation is an American multinational corporation and technology company, technology conglomerate headquartered in Redmond, Washington. Founded in 1975, the company became influential in the History of personal computers#The ear ...

etc. demonstrated. In the area of digital agriculture (alternately precision agriculture), CPS technologies are used for measurement of soil quality and moisture content and determining the right level of irrigation or fertilizer or pesticide usage.

Design

A challenge in the development of embedded and cyber-physical systems is the large differences in the design practice between the various engineering disciplines involved, such as software and mechanical engineering. Additionally, as of today there is no "language" in terms of design practice that is common to all the involved disciplines in CPS. Today, in a marketplace where rapid innovation is assumed to be essential, engineers from all disciplines need to be able to explore system designs collaboratively, allocating responsibilities to software and physical elements, and analyzing trade-offs between them. Recent advances show that coupling disciplines by using co-simulation will allow disciplines to cooperate without enforcing new tools or design methods.J .Fitzgerald, P.G. Larsen, M. Verhoef (Eds.):
Collaborative Design for Embedded Systems: Co-modelling and Co-simulation
'' Springer Verlag, 2014, . Results from the MODELISAR project show that this approach is viable by proposing a new standard for co-simulation in the form of the Functional Mock-up Interface.

Importance

The US

National Science Foundation The U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) is an Independent agencies of the United States government#Examples of independent agencies, independent agency of the Federal government of the United States, United States federal government that su ...

(NSF) has identified cyber-physical systems as a key area of research. Through its CPS Program, it awards "Frontier" projects that are large-scale projects ($5-7M each) meant to significantly move the CPS technology forward. Starting in late 2006, the NSF and other United States federal agencies sponsored several workshops on cyber-physical systems.

References

External links

The CPS Virtual Organization

-Physical Systems Week Conference
{{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410190237/https://cpsweek2017.ece.cmu.edu/index.php/program/ , date=2020-04-10 Illustrates current research in the area
Transactions on Physical Systems
- ACM journal in this area Computer systems Systems theory