Crotalaria Cephalotes
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''Crotalaria'' is a
genus Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus com ...
of
flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (), commonly called angiosperms. The term "angiosperm" is derived from the Greek words ('container, vessel') and ('seed'), and refers to those plants th ...
s in the
family Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...
Fabaceae The Fabaceae or Leguminosae,International Code of Nomenc ...
(subfamily
Faboideae The Faboideae are a subfamily of the flowering plant family Fabaceae or Leguminosae. An acceptable alternative name for the subfamily is Papilionoideae, or Papilionaceae when this group of plants is treated as a family. This subfamily is wide ...
) commonly known as rattlepods. The genus includes over 700
species In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate s ...
of
herbaceous plant Herbaceous plants are vascular plants that have no persistent woody stems above ground. This broad category of plants includes many perennials, and nearly all annuals and biennials. Definitions of "herb" and "herbaceous" The fourth edition of t ...
s and
shrubs A shrub (often also called a bush) is a small-to-medium-sized perennial woody plant. Unlike herbaceous plants, shrubs have persistent woody stems above the ground. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen. They are distinguished from trees ...
. Africa is the continent with the majority of ''Crotalaria'' species (approximately 400 species), which are mainly found in damp grassland, especially in floodplains, depressions and along edges of swamps and rivers, but also in
deciduous In the fields of horticulture and Botany, the term ''deciduous'' () means "falling off at maturity" and "tending to fall off", in reference to trees and shrubs that seasonally shed leaves, usually in the autumn; to the shedding of petals, aft ...
bush land, roadsides and fields. Some species of ''Crotalaria'' are grown as ornamentals. The common name rattlepod or rattlebox is derived from the fact that the seeds become loose in the pod as they mature, and rattle when the pod is shaken. The name derives from the
Ancient Greek Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Dark Ages (), the Archaic peri ...
, meaning "
castanet Castanets, also known as ''clackers'' or ''palillos'', are a percussion instrument (idiophone), used in Spanish, Kalo, Moorish, Ottoman, Italian, Sephardic, Swiss, and Portuguese music. In ancient Greece and ancient Rome there was a similar ...
", and is the same root as the name for the
rattlesnake Rattlesnakes are venomous snakes that form the genera ''Crotalus'' and ''Sistrurus'' of the subfamily Crotalinae (the pit vipers). All rattlesnakes are vipers. Rattlesnakes are predators that live in a wide array of habitats, hunting small anim ...
s (''
Crotalus ''Crotalus'' is a genus of venomous pit vipers in the family Viperidae, known as rattlesnakes or rattlers.Albert Hazen WWright AH, Wright AA (1957). ''Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada''. Ithaca and London: Comstock Publishing ...
''). ''Crotalaria'' species are used as food plants by the
larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. The ...
e of some
Lepidoptera Lepidoptera ( ) is an order (biology), order of insects that includes butterfly, butterflies and moths (both are called lepidopterans). About 180,000 species of the Lepidoptera are described, in 126 Family (biology), families and 46 Taxonomic r ...
species including ''
Endoclita sericeus ''Endoclita sericeus'' is a species of moth of the family Hepialidae first described by Charles Swinhoe in 1901. It is known from Java, Indonesia. Food plants for this species include ''Albizia'', ''Camellia'', ''Cinchona'', ''Crotalaria'', '' M ...
'', ''
Etiella zinckenella ''Etiella zinckenella'', the pulse pod borer moth, is a moth of the family Pyralidae. It is found in southern and eastern Europe and in the tropics and subtropics of Africa and Asia. They have also been introduced to North America and Australia. ...
'' and ''
Utetheisa ornatrix ''Utetheisa ornatrix'', also called the bella moth, ornate moth or rattlebox moth is a moth of the subfamily Arctiinae. It is aposematically colored ranging from pink, red, orange and yellow to white coloration with black markings arranged in va ...
''. The toxic alkaloids produced by some members of this genus are known to be incorporated by ''Utetheisia''
larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. The ...
e and used to secure their defense from predators.


Current and potential uses


Food and health

Several species of ''Crotalaria'' are cultivated as crops to be consumed by human populations throughout the world. To ensure the survival and optimal cultivation of these plants, they are often selected for resistance to diseases, yield, and nutritional quality. The wild and domesticated landraces of ''Crotalaria tetragona'', colloquially known as “Tum-thang,” are grown and eaten by the tribal communities of the
Mizoram Mizoram () is a state in Northeast India, with Aizawl as its seat of government and capital city. The name of the state is derived from "Mizo people, Mizo", the endonym, self-described name of the native inhabitants, and "Ram", which in the Mizo ...
state of North-east India. The flowers and pods of ''Crotalaria tetragona'' are eaten as vegetables, the flowers and buds are used as garnishing, and the seeds are eaten as pulse. In the
Lake Victoria Lake Victoria is one of the African Great Lakes. With a surface area of approximately , Lake Victoria is Africa's largest lake by area, the world's largest tropical lake, and the world's second-largest fresh water lake by surface area after ...
basin of
East Africa East Africa, Eastern Africa, or East of Africa, is the eastern subregion of the African continent. In the United Nations Statistics Division scheme of geographic regions, 10-11-(16*) territories make up Eastern Africa: Due to the historical ...
, the wild and cultivated lines of ''Crotalaria brevidens'', also known as “mitoo,” are harvested and eaten as a leafy vegetable in many popular cuisines. Its wide consumption is mainly due to its nutritional value as a rich source of
β-carotene β-Carotene is an organic, strongly coloured red-orange pigment abundant in fungi, plants, and fruits. It is a member of the carotenes, which are terpenoids (isoprenoids), synthesized biochemically from eight isoprene units and thus having 40 ...
, which is a precursor of
vitamin A Vitamin A is a fat-soluble vitamin and an essential nutrient for humans. It is a group of organic compounds that includes retinol, retinal (also known as retinaldehyde), retinoic acid, and several provitamin A carotenoids (most notably bet ...
. ''
Crotalaria longirostrata ''Crotalaria longirostrata'', the chipilín, is a perennial legume that is native to Mexico and Central America. Other common names include chepil, chepilin, chipilin and longbeak rattlebox. Description Chipilín leaves are a common leafy vegeta ...
'', also known as longbeak rattlebox or chipilín, is found in Guatemala, El Salvador, and Oaxaca and is a popular addition to many local dishes. The edible portions of the plant are the leaves and shoots, which are cooked and served as a leafy green vegetable or desiccated and used as an herb. The foliage contains high amounts of
calcium Calcium is a chemical element with the symbol Ca and atomic number 20. As an alkaline earth metal, calcium is a reactive metal that forms a dark oxide-nitride layer when exposed to air. Its physical and chemical properties are most similar to ...
,
iron Iron () is a chemical element with symbol Fe (from la, ferrum) and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, right in f ...
,
thiamine Thiamine, also known as thiamin and vitamin B1, is a vitamin, an essential micronutrient, that cannot be made in the body. It is found in food and commercially synthesized to be a dietary supplement or medication. Phosphorylated forms of thi ...
,
riboflavin Riboflavin, also known as vitamin B2, is a vitamin found in food and sold as a dietary supplement. It is essential to the formation of two major coenzymes, flavin mononucleotide and flavin adenine dinucleotide. These coenzymes are involved in ...
,
niacin Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid, is an organic compound and a form of vitamin B3, an essential human nutrient. It can be manufactured by plants and animals from the amino acid tryptophan. Niacin is obtained in the diet from a variet ...
, and
ascorbic acid Vitamin C (also known as ascorbic acid and ascorbate) is a water-soluble vitamin found in citrus and other fruits and vegetables, also sold as a dietary supplement and as a topical 'serum' ingredient to treat melasma (dark pigment spots) an ...
, while the seeds and roots are considerably toxic. ''Crotalaria longirostrata'' is considered a
noxious weed A noxious weed, harmful weed or injurious weed is a weed that has been designated by an agricultural or other governing authority as a plant that is injurious to agricultural or horticultural crops, natural habitats or ecosystems, or humans or liv ...
in the United States since it is avoided as a source of consumption by many animals and since its seeds shatter and spread over a wide range.
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a Sovereign state, sovereign country comprising the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania, and numerous List of islands of Australia, sma ...
n species of the genus ''Crotalaria'' have the capacity to be cultivated into potential grain crops that are adapted to dry environments, nutrient poor soils, and low-input agricultural systems. Australian ''Crotalaria'' species also show many suitable traits of harvestability, including an upright growth habit, a low tendency to
dehisce Dehiscence is the splitting of a mature plant structure along a built-in line of weakness to release its contents. This is common among fruits, anthers and sporangia. Sometimes this involves the complete detachment of a part; structures that op ...
and shatter, the bearing of its fruits and flowers at the ends of branches, and large to moderate seeds.


Other uses

Several species of ''Crotalaria'' are currently being cultivated for suitable traits that are not directly related to human consumption. ''
Crotalaria juncea ''Crotalaria juncea'', known as brown hemp, Indian hemp, Madras hemp, or sunn hemp, is a tropical Asian plant of the legume family (Fabaceae). It is generally considered to have originated in India.Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Lebas F., 201 ...
'', also known as sunn hemp, is currently grown throughout the
tropics The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the Equator. They are defined in latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere at N and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere at S. The tropics are also referred to ...
and
subtropics The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical and climate zones to the north and south of the tropics. Geographically part of the temperate zones of both hemispheres, they cover the middle latitudes from to approximately 35° north and ...
as a source of green
manure Manure is organic matter that is used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. Most manure consists of animal feces; other sources include compost and green manure. Manures contribute to the fertility of soil by adding organic matter and nutri ...
, lightened fiber, and
fodder Fodder (), also called provender (), is any agriculture, agricultural foodstuff used specifically to feed domesticated livestock, such as cattle, domestic rabbit, rabbits, sheep, horses, chickens and pigs. "Fodder" refers particularly to food g ...
. ''
Crotalaria juncea ''Crotalaria juncea'', known as brown hemp, Indian hemp, Madras hemp, or sunn hemp, is a tropical Asian plant of the legume family (Fabaceae). It is generally considered to have originated in India.Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Lebas F., 201 ...
'' is also being considered as a potential source of
cellulosic ethanol Cellulosic ethanol is ethanol (ethyl alcohol) produced from cellulose (the stringy fiber of a plant) rather than from the plant's seeds or fruit. It can be produced from grasses, wood, algae, or other plants. It is generally discussed for use as a ...
for
biofuel Biofuel is a fuel that is produced over a short time span from biomass, rather than by the very slow natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels, such as oil. According to the United States Energy Information Administration (E ...
.


Properties


Toxicity

The primary source of toxicity for many species of ''Crotalaria'' is the presence of
pyrrolizidine alkaloid Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), sometimes referred to as necine bases, are a group of naturally occurring alkaloids based on the structure of pyrrolizidine. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are produced by plants as a defense mechanism against insect he ...
s, which are poisonous to birds and large mammals. The two kinds of pyrrolizidine alkaloids that are found in ''Crotalaria'' plants are
monocrotaline Monocrotaline (MCT) is a pyrrolizidine alkaloid that is present in plants of the ''Crotalaria'' genus. These species can synthesise MCT out of amino acids and can cause liver, lung and kidney damage in various organisms. Initial stress factors a ...
and spectabiline. Monocrotaline is most toxic to the pulmonary vasculature and is used in animal studies to induce pulmonary arterial hypertension for human modeling. Both alkaloids show clinical
hepatotoxicity Hepatotoxicity (from ''hepatic toxicity'') implies chemical-driven liver damage. Drug-induced liver injury is a cause of acute and chronic liver disease caused specifically by medications and the most common reason for a drug to be withdrawn fro ...
and carcinogenicity. They can be found in the leguminous seeds,
foliage A leaf ( : leaves) is any of the principal appendages of a vascular plant stem, usually borne laterally aboveground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, ste ...
, stems, or roots of Crotalaria plants. Species with higher concentrations of pyrrolizidine alkaloids yield greater toxic effects compared to those with lower concentrations. In addition, species that contain only monocrotaline are more poisonous than species that contain only spectabiline at equal concentrations within the seeds, leaves, stems, or roots. There are no confirmed species to this date that contain both spectabiline and monocrotaline; a ''Crotalaria'' plant can only have either one or the other. Thus, plants that are less toxic and therefore more appropriate for human consumption carry only low concentrations of spectabiline. According to one study, species that display the greatest toxicity include ''Crotalaria spectabilis'' Roth'','' ''C. retusa'' L.'','' ''C. alata'' Leveille'','' and '' C. quinquefolia'' L. Species that are least toxic include '' Crotalaria australis'' Bak''.'' Ex Verdoorn'','' ''C. maxillaris'' Klotzsch'','' ''C. sphaerocarpa,'' '' C. juncea'' L, and ''C. brevidens'' Benth., among many others. The toxic alkaloids are attractive to butterflies in the subfamily Danaiinae and large aggregations of butterflies occur during the flowering of ''Crotalaria'' species in Asia. These butterflies also obtain alkaloids from sap emerging from withering stems and terminal branches. Among pyrrolizidine alkaloid-containging plants, ''Crotalaria'' species cause the greatest range of tissue damage to most domesticated species, causing lung lesions in cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and pigs, and liver damage in most livestock. Some species produce severe kidney lesions In March 2019, horses in the
Federal District of Brazil The Federal District ( pt, Distrito Federal ) is one of 27 federative units of Brazil. Located in the Center-West Region, it is the smallest Brazilian federal unit and the only one that has no municipalities, being divided into 31 administr ...
were fed oats contaminated with ''Crotalaria'' seeds, from an earlier seeding intended to increase nitrogen levels in the soil, and at least 13 of them died of liver failure.


Species

* '' Crotalaria spectabilis'' was introduced to the US from
India India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
for
green manure In agriculture, a green manure is a crop specifically produced to be incorporated into the soil while still green. Typically, the green manure's biomass is incorporated with a plow or disk, as is often done with (brown) manure. The primary goal ...
. As a
legume A legume () is a plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seed of such a plant. When used as a dry grain, the seed is also called a pulse. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption, for livestock f ...
that supports
nitrogen fixing bacteria Nitrogen is the chemical element with the symbol N and atomic number 7. Nitrogen is a nonmetal and the lightest member of group 15 of the periodic table, often called the pnictogens. It is a common element in the universe, estimated at seventh ...
, it is considered a "soil builder." However, it is also poisonous to
cattle Cattle (''Bos taurus'') are large, domesticated, cloven-hooved, herbivores. They are a prominent modern member of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus ''Bos''. Adult females are referred to as cows and adult mal ...
(as are many legumes), and has spread rapidly throughout the
Southeastern United States The Southeastern United States, also referred to as the American Southeast or simply the Southeast, is a geographical region of the United States. It is located broadly on the eastern portion of the southern United States and the southern por ...
where it is now considered an
invasive species An invasive species otherwise known as an alien is an introduced organism that becomes overpopulated and harms its new environment. Although most introduced species are neutral or beneficial with respect to other species, invasive species ad ...
. The
alkaloid Alkaloids are a class of basic, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. This group also includes some related compounds with neutral and even weakly acidic properties. Some synthetic compounds of similar ...
monocrotaline Monocrotaline (MCT) is a pyrrolizidine alkaloid that is present in plants of the ''Crotalaria'' genus. These species can synthesise MCT out of amino acids and can cause liver, lung and kidney damage in various organisms. Initial stress factors a ...
, a
pyrrolizidine alkaloid Pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs), sometimes referred to as necine bases, are a group of naturally occurring alkaloids based on the structure of pyrrolizidine. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids are produced by plants as a defense mechanism against insect he ...
, the main toxic principle of ''Crotalaria spectabilis'', is used to induce experimental pulmonary hypertension in laboratory animals. Larvae of the
Ornate moth ''Utetheisa ornatrix'', also called the bella moth, ornate moth or rattlebox moth is a moth of the subfamily Arctiinae. It is aposematically colored ranging from pink, red, orange and yellow to white coloration with black markings arranged in va ...
feed on the plant and re-purpose the poisonous compound as a
defense Defense or defence may refer to: Tactical, martial, and political acts or groups * Defense (military), forces primarily intended for warfare * Civil defense, the organizing of civilians to deal with emergencies or enemy attacks * Defense industr ...
, excreting it when they are threatened by potential
predation Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill the ...
. *'' Crotalaria pallida'' pollen may cause an allergic reaction in humans, including swelling of the eyes and face, a rash on the neck and shoulders, and itching. Symptoms may take up to a week to clear. *''
Crotalaria longirostrata ''Crotalaria longirostrata'', the chipilín, is a perennial legume that is native to Mexico and Central America. Other common names include chepil, chepilin, chipilin and longbeak rattlebox. Description Chipilín leaves are a common leafy vegeta ...
'' and '' Crotalaria pumila'' are tropical legumes domesticated since pre-Columbian times. They cover a wide range of uses such as: food and refreshing drink for humans, cover crop or green manure, improvement of fallows, paper elaboration, medicinal plant and honey production (melliferous species). Due to their high protein contents, ''Crotalaria longirostrata'' and ''Crotalaria pumila'' were further studied to observe potential improvements in the diets of those who consume it. In an experiment, this species of plant was collected in 5 communities of the state of Veracruz. In comparing the relative protein content of each plant, it was found that the cultivated plants with the largest leaves were the most protein-rich, while the plants with the smallest leaves had the least amount of protein. This has important agricultural implications because these plants can be selected specifically for larger leaves in order to yield maximal protein content. Both of these plants are also considered to be valuable genetic resources, and studies suggest that they co-evolved within certain geographic regions. To affirm this, a cytological study between the two species was conducted, and it was found that their chromosomes are very similar in shape and size. The highly symmetrical nature of these two karyotypes suggests a close phylogenetic relationship between the two. *'' Crotalaria brevidens'' and ''
Crotalaria ochroleuca ''Crotalaria'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Fabaceae (subfamily Faboideae) commonly known as rattlepods. The genus includes over 700 species of herbaceous plants and shrubs. Africa is the continent with the majority of ''Crotalar ...
'' are leafy vegetable species found to be cultivated in western Kenya. Several tribes known to reside in the country, including the Luhyas, Luos and Kisiis tribes, have been reported to have an extraordinarily high number of these species in comparison to other plant species in their communities. Over time, the Luhyas, Luos and Kisiis have selected both of these species of plants to have high yields. Alongside, this, ''C.brevidens'' and ''C.ochroleuca'' can be used as cover crops. Furthermore, they have also been selected by these Kenyan tribes to have high tolerance to disease and poor soil. Both of these serve as indications that the food production systems of each tribe evolved with the emphasis of vegetable cooking.


See also

*''
Senna covesii ''Senna covesii'' (desert senna, Coues' senna, rattleweed, rattlebox, dais, or cove senna) is a Perennial plant, perennial subshrub in the family Fabaceae, native to the Mojave Desert and Sonoran Desert in southeastern California, southern Nevad ...
'', unrelated plant sometimes also called "rattlepod"


References


External links

* * * * {{Taxonbar, from=Q311148 Fabaceae genera