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Critical discourse analysis (CDA) is an interdisciplinary approach to the study of
discourse Discourse is a generalization of the notion of a conversation to any form of communication. Discourse is a major topic in social theory, with work spanning fields such as sociology, anthropology, continental philosophy, and discourse analysis. ...
that views language as a form of social practice. CDA combines critique of discourse and explanation of how it figures within and contributes to the existing social reality, as a basis for action to change that existing reality in particular respects.
Scholar A scholar is a person who pursues academic and intellectual activities, particularly academics who apply their intellectualism into expertise in an area of study. A scholar can also be an academic, who works as a professor, teacher, or research ...
s working in the tradition of CDA generally argue that (non-linguistic) social practice and linguistic practice constitute one another and focus on investigating how societal power relations are established and reinforced through language use. In this sense, it differs from
discourse analysis Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is an approach to the analysis of written, vocal, or sign language use, or any significant semiotic event. The objects of discourse Analysis ( discourse, writing, conversation, communicative even ...
in that it highlights issues of power asymmetries, manipulation, exploitation, and structural inequities in domains such as education, media, and politics.


Background

Critical discourse analysis emerged from 'critical linguistics' developed at the University of East Anglia by
Roger Fowler Roger Fowler (1938–1999) was a world-renowned and long-serving British Linguist, and was professor of English and Linguistics at the University of East Anglia. He is well known for his works in stylistics. Together with Bob Hodge, Gunther Kress ...
and fellow scholars in the 1970s, and the terms are now often interchangeable. Research in the field of
sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics is the descriptive study of the effect of any or all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used, and society's effect on language. It can overlap with the sociology of ...
was paying little attention to social hierarchy and power. CDA was first developed by the Lancaster school of linguists of which Norman Fairclough was the most prominent figure. Ruth Wodak has also made a major contribution to this field of study. In addition to linguistic theory, the approach draws from social theory—and contributions from
Karl Marx Karl Heinrich Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist, critic of political economy, and socialist revolutionary. His best-known titles are the 1848 ...
, Antonio Gramsci, Louis Althusser, Jürgen Habermas,
Michel Foucault Paul-Michel Foucault (, ; ; 15 October 192625 June 1984) was a French philosopher, historian of ideas, writer, political activist, and literary critic. Foucault's theories primarily address the relationship between power and knowledge, and ho ...
and Pierre Bourdieu—in order to examine ideologies and power relations involved in discourse. Language connects with the social through being the primary domain of ideology, and through being both a site of, and a stake in, struggles for power. Ideology has been called the basis of the social representations of groups, and, in psychological versions of CDA developed by
Teun A. van Dijk Teun Adrianus van Dijk (born May 7, 1943, in Naaldwijk, German-occcupied Netherlands) is a scholar in the fields of text linguistics, discourse analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). With Walter Kintsch he contributed to the development ...
and Ruth Wodak, there is assumed to be a sociocognitive interface between social structures and discourse structures. The historical dimension in critical discourse studies also plays an important role.


Methodology

CDA is an application of
discourse analysis Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is an approach to the analysis of written, vocal, or sign language use, or any significant semiotic event. The objects of discourse Analysis ( discourse, writing, conversation, communicative even ...
, it is generally agreed that methods from discourse studies, the humanities and social sciences may be used in CDA research. This is on the condition that it is able to adequately and relevantly produce insights into the way discourse reproduces (or resists) social and political inequality, power abuse or domination. CDA does not limit its analysis to specific structures of text or talk, but systematically relates these to structures of the
sociopolitical Political sociology is an interdisciplinary field of study concerned with exploring how governance and society interact and influence one another at the micro to macro levels of analysis. Interested in the social causes and consequences of how ...
context. CDA has been used to examine rhetoric in political speech acts, and any forms of speech that may be used to manipulate the impression given to the audience. However, there have been flaws noted with CDA. For example, it has been said that it is simultaneously too broad to distinctly identify manipulations within the rhetoric, yet is also not powerful enough to appropriately find all that researchers set out to establish. Norman Fairclough discussed the term CDA in his book ''Language and Power.'' Fairclough introduced the concepts that are now viewed as vital in CDA such as "discourse, power, ideology, social practice and common sense." He argues that language should be analyzed as a social practice through the lens of discourse in both speaking and writing. Fairclough developed a three-dimensional framework for studying discourse, where the aim is to map three separate forms of analysis onto one another: analysis of (spoken or written) language texts, analysis of discourse practice (processes of text production, distribution and consumption) and analysis of discursive events as instances of socio-cultural practice. Particularly, he combines micro, meso and macro-level interpretation. At the micro-level, the analyst considers various aspects of textual/linguistic analysis, for example syntactic analysis, use of metaphor and rhetorical devices. The meso-level or "level of discursive practice" involves studying issues of production and consumption, for instance, which institution produced a text, who is the target audience, etc. At the macro-level, the analyst is concerned with intertextual and interdiscursive elements and tries to take into account the broad, societal currents that are affecting the text being studied.
Teun A. van Dijk Teun Adrianus van Dijk (born May 7, 1943, in Naaldwijk, German-occcupied Netherlands) is a scholar in the fields of text linguistics, discourse analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). With Walter Kintsch he contributed to the development ...
's approach to Critical Discourse Analysis combines cognitive theories with linguistic and social theories. Van Dijk uses cognition as the middle layer of a three-layer approach consisting of discourse, cognitive and society. By integrating a cognitive approach, researchers are better able to understand how larger social phenomenon are reinforced through popular, everyday discourse. Critics of this practice point out that his approach focuses on the reproduction of ideologies rather than the transformation. Ruth Wodak has developed a framework based on the systemic collection of sample texts on a topic to better understand the interrelationship of discourses that exist within the field. This framework allows for the discussion and analysis of ideologies involved in a set of discourses. The macro level of analysis is helpful in understanding how macro-structures of inequality persist through discursive processes across multiple sites and texts.


Applications

CDA has been applied to media studies, advertisements texts English language teaching,
heritage language A heritage language is a minority language (either immigrant or indigenous) learned by its speakers at home as children, and difficult to be fully developed because of insufficient input from the social environment. The speakers grow up with a ...
socialization and environmental sciences to name a few.


Notable academics

Notable writers include Norman Fairclough, Michał Krzyżanowski, Paul Chilton,
Teun A. van Dijk Teun Adrianus van Dijk (born May 7, 1943, in Naaldwijk, German-occcupied Netherlands) is a scholar in the fields of text linguistics, discourse analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). With Walter Kintsch he contributed to the development ...
, Ruth Wodak, John E. Richardson, Phil Graham, Theo Van Leeuwen, , , James Paul Gee,
Roger Fowler Roger Fowler (1938–1999) was a world-renowned and long-serving British Linguist, and was professor of English and Linguistics at the University of East Anglia. He is well known for his works in stylistics. Together with Bob Hodge, Gunther Kress ...
, Gunther Kress, Mary Talbot,
Lilie Chouliaraki Lilie Chouliaraki is a professor in Media and Communications at the London School of Economics and Political Sciences (LSE). Chouliaraki’s main area of research is the mediation of human vulnerability and suffering. She empirically explores how ...
, Thomas Huckin, Hilary Janks,
Veronika Koller Veronika Koller (born 1973) is an Austrian- British linguist. She is currently Reader in Discourse Studies at the Department of Linguistics and English Language of Lancaster University, United Kingdom. Her research focuses on critical discourse ...
, Christopher Hart, and Bob Hodge, William Feighery William Feighery.


See also


Bibliography


Notes


References

*Caldas-Coulthard, Carmen Rosa, and Coulthard, Malcolm, (editors) (1996) ''Texts and Practices: Readings in Critical Discourse Analysis'', London: Routledge. *Chouliaraki, Lilie & Norman Fairclough (1999). Discourse in Late Modernity: Rethinking Critical Discourse Analysis. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. * Norman Fairclough (1995). Media Discourse. London: Edward Arnold. * Norman Fairclough (2003). Analysing Discourse: Textual Analysis for Social Research. London: Routledge. *Jaworski, Adam, & Coupland, Nikolas (Eds.) (2002). The Discourse Reader. New York: Routledge. *Lazar, Michelle (Ed.) (2005)
Feminist Critical Discourse Analysis: Gender, Power and Ideology In Discourse
Basingstoke: Palgrave. *Rogers, Rebecca (2003)
A Critical Discourse Analysis of Family Literacy Practices: Power in and Out of Print
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. *Rogers, Rebecca (Ed.) (2003). An Introduction to Critical Discourse Analysis in Education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. *Talbot, Mary, Atkinson, Karen and Atkinson, David (2003). Language and Power in the Modern World. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. *Toolan, Michael (Ed.) (2002). Critical Discourse Analysis: Critical Concepts in Linguistics (Vol I: Precursors and Inspirations). London: Routledge. *Toolan, Michael (Ed.) (2002). Critical Discourse Analysis: Critical Concepts in Linguistics (Vol II: Leading Advocates). London: Routledge. *Toolan, Michael (Ed.) (2002). Critical Discourse Analysis: Critical Concepts in Linguistics (Vol III: Concurrent Analyses and Critiques). London: Routledge. *Toolan, Michael (Ed.) (2002). Critical Discourse Analysis: Critical Concepts in Linguistics (Vol IV: Current Debates and New Directions). London: Routledge. *
Teun A. Van Dijk Teun Adrianus van Dijk (born May 7, 1943, in Naaldwijk, German-occcupied Netherlands) is a scholar in the fields of text linguistics, discourse analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). With Walter Kintsch he contributed to the development ...
. (1993). Elite discourse and racism. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. *
Teun A. Van Dijk Teun Adrianus van Dijk (born May 7, 1943, in Naaldwijk, German-occcupied Netherlands) is a scholar in the fields of text linguistics, discourse analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). With Walter Kintsch he contributed to the development ...
. (2005). Racism and discourse in Spain and Latin America. Amsterdam: Benjamins. *
Teun A. Van Dijk Teun Adrianus van Dijk (born May 7, 1943, in Naaldwijk, German-occcupied Netherlands) is a scholar in the fields of text linguistics, discourse analysis and Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). With Walter Kintsch he contributed to the development ...
. (2008). Discourse and Power. Houndsmills: Palgrave. *Weiss, Gilbert & Wodak, Ruth (Eds.) (2003). Critical Discourse Analysis: Theory and Interdisciplinarity in Critical Discourse Analysis. London: Palgrave. *Young, Lynne & Harrison, Claire (Eds.) (2004). Systemic Functional Linguistics and Critical Discourse Analysis: Studies in Social Change. London: Continuum. * Anna Duszak, Juliane House, Łukasz Kumięga: Globalization, Discourse, Media: In a Critical Perspective / Globalisierung, Diskurse, Medien: eine kritische Perspektive. Warsaw University Press, 2010


Further reading

*Amoussou, F., & Allagbe, A. A. (2018)
Principles, Theories and Approaches to Critical Discourse Analysis
''International Journal on Studies in English Language and Literature'', ''6''(1), 11-18. * Henry Widdowson (1995). Review of Fairclough's Discourse and Social Change. Applied Linguistics 16(4): 510–516. *Norman Fairclough (1996). A Reply to Henry Widdowson's 'Discourse Analysis: A Critical View. Language & Literature 5(1): 49–56. *Henry Widdowson (1996). Reply to Fairclough: Discourse and Interpretation: Conjectures and Refutations. Language & Literature 5(1): 57–69. * Henry Widdowson (1998). "The Theory and Practice of Critical Discourse Analysis." Applied Linguistics 19(1): 136–151. * O'Halloran, Kieran A. (2003) Critical Discourse Analysis and Language Cognition. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. * Beaugrande, Robert de (2001). "Interpreting the Discourse of H.G. Widdowson: A Corpus-Based Critical Discourse Analysis. Applied Linguistics 22(1): 104–121. *Toolan, Michael (1997). What Is Critical Discourse Analysis and Why Are People Saying Such Terrible Things About It? Language & Literature 6(2): 83–103. *Stubbs, Michael (1998). Whorf's Children: Critical Comments on Critical Discourse Analysis. In Ryan, A. & Wray, A. (Eds.), Evolving Models of Language: British Studies in Applied Linguistics 12, Clevedon: BAAL/Multilingual Matters. *Blommaert, Jan & Bulcaen, Chris (2000). Critical Discourse Analysis. Annual Review of Anthropology 29: 447–466. *Blommaert, Jan, Collins, James, Heller, Monica,
Rampton, Ben Michael Benjamin Helter Rampton (born 31 May 1953) is a British linguist. Career Rampton completed a bachelor's degree at the University of York in 1976, and obtained a doctorate at the University of London in 1987. He was elected a fellow of the ...
, Slembrouck, Stef & Jef Verschueren. Discourse and Critique. Special issue of Critique of Anthropology 21(1): 5–107 and 21(2): 117–183. *Slembrouck, Stef (2001). Explanation, Interpretation and Critique in the Analysis of Discourse. Critique of Anthropology, 21: 33–57. *Slembrouck, Stef (2005). Discourse, critique and ethnography: class-oriented coding in accounts of child protection. Language Sciences 27:619–650. *Threadgold, Terry (2003)
Cultural Studies, Critical Theory and Critical Discourse Analysis: Histories, Remembering and Futures
Linguistik Online 14(2). *Tyrwhitt-Drake, Hugh (1999). Resisting the Discourse of Critical Discourse Analysis: Reopening a Hong Kong Case Study. Journal of Pragmatics 31: 1081–1088.


External links


Discourseanalysis.net
Research portal and mailing list
Critical Approaches to Discourse Analysis Across Disciplines
Research portal and conference
Discourses.org
Website of Teun van Dijk
Norman Fairclough's profile page


Associated research groups


Language, Ideology and Power research group at Lancaster University

Newcastle Critical Discourse Group

Discourse and Rhetoric group at Loughborough University


Associated journals


Discourse & Society
(from 1990)
Social Semiotics
(from 1990)
Journal of Language and Politics
(from 2002)
Critical Discourse Studies
(from 2004)
Critical Approaches to Discourse Analysis Across Disciplines
(peer-reviewed free online journal, from 2007) {{Authority control Sociolinguistics Critical theory Discourse analysis Social science methodology