HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

The anti-cult movement (abbreviated ACM, and also known as the countercult movement) consists of various governmental and non-governmental organizations and individuals that seek to raise awareness of
cult In modern English, ''cult'' is usually a pejorative term for a social group that is defined by its unusual religious, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs and rituals, or its common interest in a particular personality, object, or goal. This ...
s, uncover coercive practices used to attract and retain members, and help those who have become involved with harmful cult practices. One prominent group within the anti-cult movement, Christian counter-cult organizations, oppose
New Religious Movements A new religious movement (NRM), also known as alternative spirituality or a new religion, is a religious or spiritual group that has modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin or th ...
on
theological Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
grounds, categorizing them as ''cults'', and distribute information to this effect through church networks and via printed literature.


Concept

The anti-cult movement is conceptualized as a collection of individuals and groups, whether formally organized or not, who oppose some "new religious movements" (or "
cult In modern English, ''cult'' is usually a pejorative term for a social group that is defined by its unusual religious, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs and rituals, or its common interest in a particular personality, object, or goal. This ...
s"). This
countermovement A countermovement in sociology means a social movement opposed to another social movement. Whenever one social movement starts up, another group establishes themselves to undermine the previous group. Many social movements start out as an effect ...
has reportedly recruited participants from family members of "cultists", former group members (or
apostates Apostasy (; grc-gre, ἀποστασία , 'a defection or revolt') is the formal disaffiliation from, abandonment of, or renunciation of a religion by a person. It can also be defined within the broader context of embracing an opinion that ...
), religious groups (including
Jewish Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""The ...
groups) and associations of health professionals. Although there is a trend towards globalization, the social and organizational bases vary significantly from country to country according to the social and political opportunity structures in each place. As with many subjects in the
social sciences Social science is one of the branches of science, devoted to the study of societies and the relationships among individuals within those societies. The term was formerly used to refer to the field of sociology, the original "science of soci ...
, the movement is variously defined. A significant minority opinion suggests that analysis should treat the secular anti-cult movement separately from the religiously motivated (mainly
Christian Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
) groups. The anti-cult movement might be divided into four classes: # secular counter-cult groups; # Christian
evangelical Evangelicalism (), also called evangelical Christianity or evangelical Protestantism, is a worldwide Interdenominationalism, interdenominational movement within Protestantism, Protestant Christianity that affirms the centrality of being "bor ...
counter-cult groups; # groups formed to counter a specific cult; and # organizations that offer some form of
exit counseling Deprogramming is a controversial tactic that attempts to help someone who has "strongly held convictions," often coming from cults or New Religious Movements (NRM). Deprogramming aims to assist a person who holds a controversial or restrictive be ...
.George D. Chryssides. ''Exploring New Religions.'' London and New York: Cassell, 1999. 349–51. Most if not all of the groups involved express the view that there are potentially deleterious effects associated with some new religious movements.


Religious and secular critics

Commentators differentiate two main types of opposition to "cults": * religious opposition: related to
theological Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the ...
issues. * secular opposition: related to emotional, social, financial, and economic consequences of cult involvement, where "cult" can refer to a religious or to a secular group.


Hadden's taxonomy of the anti-cult movement

Jeffrey K. Hadden Jeffrey K. Hadden (1937–2003) was an American professor of sociology. He began his teaching career at Western Reserve University and then at the University of Virginia commencing in 1972. Hadden earned his Ph.D. in 1963 at the University of Wis ...
sees four distinct classes of opposition to "cults": #Opposition grounded on Religion #*Opposition usually defined in theological terms. #*Cults considered heretical. #*Endeavors to expose the heresy and correct the beliefs of those who have strayed from a truth. #*Prefers
metaphors A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide (or obscure) clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are often compared with ...
of deception rather than possession. #*Serves two important functions: #**protects members (especially youth) from heresy, and #**increases solidarity among the faithful. #Secular opposition #*Regards individual autonomy as the manifest goal – achieved by getting people out of groups that use
mind control Brainwashing (also known as mind control, menticide, coercive persuasion, thought control, thought reform, and forced re-education) is the concept that the human mind can be altered or controlled by certain psychological techniques. Brainwashin ...
and deceptive proselytization. #*Regards the struggle as an issue of control rather than theology. #*Organizes around families of children currently or previously involved in a cult. #*Has the unannounced goal of disabling or destroying NRMs organizationally. #Apostates #*Former members who consider themselves egregiously wronged by a cult, often with the coordination and encouragement of anti-cult groups. #Entrepreneurial opposition #*A few "
entrepreneur Entrepreneurship is the creation or extraction of economic value. With this definition, entrepreneurship is viewed as change, generally entailing risk beyond what is normally encountered in starting a business, which may include other values th ...
s" who have made careers of organizing opposition groups. #*Broadcasters, journalists, and lawyers who base a reputation or career on anti-cult activities.


Cult-watching groups and individuals, and other opposition to cults


Family-members of adherents

Some opposition to cults (and to some NRMs) started with family-members of cult-adherents who had problems with the sudden changes in character, lifestyle and future plans of their young adult children who had joined NRMs.
Ted Patrick Theodore Roosevelt Patrick, Jr. (born 1930) is an American deprogrammer and author. He is considered to be the "father of deprogramming." Early life Ted Patrick was born in a red-light district of Chattanooga, Tennessee, in which he was surroun ...
, widely known as "the father of
deprogramming Deprogramming is a controversial tactic that attempts to help someone who has "strongly held convictions," often coming from cults or New Religious Movements (NRM). Deprogramming aims to assist a person who holds a controversial or restrictive be ...
", exemplifies members of this group. The former
Cult Awareness Network The Cult Awareness Network (CAN) was an anti-cult organization created by deprogrammer Ted Patrick that provided information on groups that it considered to be cults, as well as support and referrals to deprogrammers. It was founded in the wake ...
(old CAN) grew out of a
grassroots A grassroots movement is one that uses the people in a given district, region or community as the basis for a political or economic movement. Grassroots movements and organizations use collective action from the local level to effect change at t ...
-movement by parents of cult-members.J. Gordon Melton. "Anti-cultists in the United States: An Historical Perspective." In ''New Religious Movements: Changes and Responses'', edited by Jamie Cresswell and Bryan Wilson, 213–33. London and New York: Routledge, 1999. 216. The
American Family Foundation The International Cultic Studies Association (ICSA) is a non-profit anti-cult organization focusing on groups it defines as "cultic" and their processes. It publishes the ''International Journal of Cultic Studies'' and other materials. History ...
( the
International Cultic Studies Association The International Cultic Studies Association (ICSA) is a non-profit anti-cult organization focusing on groups it defines as "cultic" and their processes. It publishes the ''International Journal of Cultic Studies'' and other materials. History ...
) originated from a father whose daughter had joined a high-control group, and other parents concerned about young adult offspring populated the American Family Foundation's membership.Michael D. Langone. "1979–2019: The Changing Population of ICSA." International Cultic Studies Association (ICSA). Retrieved 28 May 2022, https://www.icsahome.com/articles/1979-2019-the-changing-population-of-icsa


Clinical psychologists and psychiatrists

From the 1970s onwards some psychiatrists and clinical psychologists accused "cults" of harming some of their members. These accusations were sometimes based on observations made during therapy, and sometimes were related to theories regarding brainwashing or mind control.


Former members

Anson Shupe Anson D. Shupe, Jr. (21 January 1948 – 4 May 2015) was an American sociologist noted for his studies of religious groups and their countermovements, family violence and clergy misconduct. He was affiliated with the New Cult Awareness Network, a ...
,
David G. Bromley David G. Bromley (born 1941) is a professor of sociology at Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA and the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, specialized in sociology of religion and the academic study of new religious movements ...
and Joseph Ventimiglia coined the term ''atrocity tales'' in 1979, Bromley, David G., Shupe, Anson D., Ventimiglia, J. C
"Atrocity Tales, the Unification Church, and the Social Construction of Evil."
''Journal of Communication'' 29, no. 3 (1979): 42–53.
which
Bryan R. Wilson Bryan Ronald Wilson (25 June 1926 – 9 October 2004), was Reader Emeritus in Sociology at the University of Oxford and President of the International Society for the Sociology of Religion (1971–75). He became a Fellow of All Souls College, ...
later took up in relation to former members' narratives. Bromley and Shupe defined an "atrocity tale" as the symbolic presentation of action or events, real or imagined, in such a context that they come to flagrantly violate the (presumably) shared premises upon which a given set of social relationships should take place. The recounting of such tales has the intention of reaffirming normative boundaries. By sharing the reporter's disapproval or horror, an audience reasserts normative prescription and clearly locates the violator beyond the limits of
public morality Public morality refers to moral and ethical standards enforced in a society, by law or police work or social pressure, and applied to public life, to the content of the media, and to conduct in public places. A famous remark of Mrs Patrick Ca ...
.


Christian countercult movement

In the 1940s, the long-held opposition by some established Christian denominations to non-Christian religions or supposedly
heretical Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, in particular the accepted beliefs of a church or religious organization. The term is usually used in reference to violations of important religi ...
, or counterfeit, Christian sects crystallized into a more organized Christian counter cult movement in the United States. For those belonging to the movement, all religious groups claiming to be Christian, but deemed outside of Christian
orthodoxy Orthodoxy (from Greek: ) is adherence to correct or accepted creeds, especially in religion. Orthodoxy within Christianity refers to acceptance of the doctrines defined by various creeds and ecumenical councils in Antiquity, but different Churc ...
, were considered "cults." Christian cults are new religious movements which have a Christian background but are considered to be
theologically Theology is the systematic study of the nature of the divine and, more broadly, of religious belief. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of analyzing the s ...
deviant by members of other Christian churches. In his influential book ''
The Kingdom of the Cults ''The Kingdom of the Cults'', first published in 1965, is a reference book of the Christian countercult movement in the United States, written by Baptist minister and counter-cultist Walter Ralston Martin.Michael J. McManus, "Eulogy for the god ...
'', first published in the United States in 1965, Christian scholar Walter Martin defines Christian cults as groups that follow the personal interpretation of an individual, rather than the understanding of the
Bible The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, and many other religions. The Bible is an anthologya compilation of texts of a ...
accepted by
mainstream Christianity The original Nicene Creed (; grc-gre, Σύμβολον τῆς Νικαίας; la, Symbolum Nicaenum) was first adopted at the First Council of Nicaea in 325. In 381, it was amended at the First Council of Constantinople. The amended form is a ...
. He mentions
the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, informally known as the LDS Church or Mormon Church, is a Nontrinitarianism, nontrinitarian Christianity, Christian church that considers itself to be the Restorationism, restoration of the ...
,
Christian Science Christian Science is a set of beliefs and practices associated with members of the Church of Christ, Scientist. Adherents are commonly known as Christian Scientists or students of Christian Science, and the church is sometimes informally know ...
, the
Jehovah's Witnesses Jehovah's Witnesses is a millenarian restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity. The group reports a worldwide membership of approximately 8.7 million adherents involved in ...
,
Unitarian Universalism Unitarian Universalism (UU) is a liberal religion characterized by a "free and responsible search for truth and meaning". Unitarian Universalists assert no creed, but instead are unified by their shared search for spiritual growth, guided by a ...
, and
Unity Unity may refer to: Buildings * Unity Building, Oregon, Illinois, US; a historic building * Unity Building (Chicago), Illinois, US; a skyscraper * Unity Buildings, Liverpool, UK; two buildings in England * Unity Chapel, Wyoming, Wisconsin, US; a h ...
as examples. The Christian countercult movement asserts that Christian sects whose beliefs are partially or wholly not in accordance with the
Bible The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, and many other religions. The Bible is an anthologya compilation of texts of a ...
are erroneous. It also states that a religious sect can be considered a "cult" if its beliefs involve a denial of what they view as any of the essential
Christian Christians () are people who follow or adhere to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. The words ''Christ'' and ''Christian'' derive from the Koine Greek title ''Christós'' (Χρι ...
teachings such as
salvation Salvation (from Latin: ''salvatio'', from ''salva'', 'safe, saved') is the state of being saved or protected from harm or a dire situation. In religion and theology, ''salvation'' generally refers to the deliverance of the soul from sin and its c ...
, the
Trinity The Christian doctrine of the Trinity (, from 'threefold') is the central dogma concerning the nature of God in most Christian churches, which defines one God existing in three coequal, coeternal, consubstantial divine persons: God the F ...
,
Jesus Jesus, likely from he, יֵשׁוּעַ, translit=Yēšūaʿ, label=Hebrew/Aramaic ( AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ or Jesus of Nazareth (among other names and titles), was a first-century Jewish preacher and religious ...
himself as a person, the
ministry of Jesus The ministry of Jesus, in the canonical gospels, begins with his baptism in the countryside of Roman Judea and Transjordan, near the River Jordan by John the Baptist, and ends in Jerusalem, following the Last Supper with his disciples.''Chri ...
, the
Miracles of Jesus The miracles of Jesus are miraculous deeds attributed to Jesus in Christian and Islamic texts. The majority are faith healings, exorcisms, resurrections, and control over nature. In the Synoptic Gospels (Mark, Matthew, and Luke), Jesus refuse ...
, the
Crucifixion of Jesus The crucifixion and death of Jesus occurred in 1st-century Judea, most likely in AD 30 or AD 33. It is described in the four canonical gospels, referred to in the New Testament epistles, attested to by other ancient sources, and consid ...
, the
Death of Christ The crucifixion and death of Jesus occurred in 1st-century Judea, most likely in AD 30 or AD 33. It is described in the four canonical gospels, referred to in the New Testament epistles, attested to by other ancient sources, and considere ...
, the
Resurrection of Christ The resurrection of Jesus ( grc-x-biblical, ἀνάστασις τοῦ Ἰησοῦ) is the Christian belief that God raised Jesus on the third day after his crucifixion, starting – or restoring – his exalted life as Christ and Lord. ...
, the
Second Coming of Christ The Second Coming (sometimes called the Second Advent or the Parousia) is a Christian (as well as Islamic and Baha'i) belief that Jesus will return again after his ascension to heaven about two thousand years ago. The idea is based on messi ...
, and the
Rapture The rapture is an Christian eschatology, eschatological position held by some Christians, particularly those of American evangelicalism, consisting of an Eschatology, end-time event when all Christian believers who are alive, along with resurre ...
. Countercult literature usually expresses doctrinal or theological concerns and a
missionary A missionary is a member of a Religious denomination, religious group which is sent into an area in order to promote its faith or provide services to people, such as education, literacy, social justice, health care, and economic development.Tho ...
or
apologetic Apologetics (from Greek , "speaking in defense") is the religious discipline of defending religious doctrines through systematic argumentation and discourse. Early Christian writers (c. 120–220) who defended their beliefs against critics and ...
purpose. It presents a rebuttal by emphasizing the teachings of the
Bible The Bible (from Koine Greek , , 'the books') is a collection of religious texts or scriptures that are held to be sacred in Christianity, Judaism, Samaritanism, and many other religions. The Bible is an anthologya compilation of texts of a ...
against the beliefs of non-fundamental Christian sects. Christian countercult activist writers also emphasize the need for Christians to
evangelize In Christianity, evangelism (or witnessing) is the act of preaching the gospel with the intention of sharing the message and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christians who specialize in evangelism are often known as evangelists, whether they are in ...
to followers of cults.


Governmental opposition

The secular opposition to cults and new religious movements operates internationally, though a number of sizable and sometimes expanding groups originated in the United States. Some European countries, such as France, Germany, Belgium and Switzerland have introduced legislation or taken other measures against cults or "cultic deviations". In the Netherlands "
cult In modern English, ''cult'' is usually a pejorative term for a social group that is defined by its unusual religious, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs and rituals, or its common interest in a particular personality, object, or goal. This ...
s",
sect A sect is a subgroup of a religious, political, or philosophical belief system, usually an offshoot of a larger group. Although the term was originally a classification for religious separated groups, it can now refer to any organization that b ...
s, and
new religious movement A new religious movement (NRM), also known as alternative spirituality or a new religion, is a religious or spiritual group that has modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin or th ...
s have the same legal rights as larger and more mainstream religious movements. As of 2004, the Netherlands do not have an anti-cult movement of any significance.


National anti-cult movements


France

Anti-cult organizations in France have included the
Centre Roger Ikor The Centre contre les manipulations mentales (Centre against mind control), widely named CCMM or Centre Ikor Roger, is a French anti-cult association. History The association was founded in 1981 by the writer Roger Ikor, winner of the Prix Goncou ...
(1981–) and MILS (
Mission interministérielle de lutte contre les sectes The MIVILUDES (''Mission interministérielle de vigilance et de lutte contre les dérives sectaires''; Interministerial Mission of Vigilance and Combat against Sectarian Drifts) is a French government agency, created by presidential decree in 20 ...
; English: "Interministerial Mission in the Fight Against
Cults In modern English, ''cult'' is usually a pejorative term for a social group that is defined by its unusual religious, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs and rituals, or its common interest in a particular personality, object, or goal. This ...
"), operational from 7 October 1998.
MIVILUDES The MIVILUDES (''Mission interministérielle de vigilance et de lutte contre les dérives sectaires''; Interministerial Mission of Vigilance and Combat against Sectarian Drifts) is a French government agency, created by presidential decree in 2 ...
, established in 2002, subsumed some of their operations. FECRIS (Fédération Européenne des Centres de Recherche et d'Information sur le Sectarisme),
European Federation of Centres of Research and Information on Sectarianism FECRIS (Fédération Européenne des Centres de Recherche et d'Information sur le Sectarisme) – European Federation of Centres of Research and Information on Sectarianism, a French non-profit association and anti-cult organization, serves as ...
, operates in France and serves as an
umbrella organization An umbrella organization is an association of (often related, industry-specific) institutions who work together formally to coordinate activities and/or pool resources. In business, political, and other environments, it provides resources and ofte ...
for anti-cult work throughout Europe. MIVILUDES has been criticized for the broad scope of its list of cults, which included both non-religious organizations and criteria for inclusion which
Bishop A bishop is an ordained clergy member who is entrusted with a position of authority and oversight in a religious institution. In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance of dioceses. The role or office of bishop is ca ...
Jean Vernette Fr. Jean Vernette (26 February 1929, Port-Vendres, Pyrénées-Orientales - 16 September 2002) was a French priest of the diocese of Montauban. He was considered a specialist by the Roman Catholic Church. In 1973, Vernette was appointed national s ...
, the national secretary of the French episcopate to the study of cults and
new religious movements A new religious movement (NRM), also known as alternative spirituality or a new religion, is a religious or spiritual group that has modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin or th ...
, said could be applied to almost all religions. MIVILUDES officials are under the French
Ministry of the Interior An interior ministry (sometimes called a ministry of internal affairs or ministry of home affairs) is a government department that is responsible for internal affairs. Lists of current ministries of internal affairs Named "ministry" * Ministry ...
as of January 2020. The
About-Picard law The 2001 About-Picard law bu pika:r officially Law No. 2001-504 of June 12, 2001, aimed at strengthening the prevention and repression of sectarian movements that undermine human rights and fundamental freedoms ( fr: loi n° 2001-504 du 12 jui ...
against sects and cultic influence that "undermine
human rights Human rights are Morality, moral principles or Social norm, normsJames Nickel, with assistance from Thomas Pogge, M.B.E. Smith, and Leif Wenar, 13 December 2013, Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyHuman Rights Retrieved 14 August 2014 for ce ...
and
fundamental freedoms Fundamental rights are a group of rights that have been recognized by a high degree of protection from encroachment. These rights are specifically identified in a constitution, or have been found under due process of law. The United Nations' Susta ...
" as well as mental manipulation was established in 2001.


United States

The first organized opposition to new religions in the United States appeared in 1971 with the formation of FREECOG (Parents Committee to Free Our Sons and Daughters from the Children of God). In 1973 FREECOG renamed itself as the Volunteer Parents of America, and then the Citizens Freedom Foundation (CFF), before becoming the
Cult Awareness Network The Cult Awareness Network (CAN) was an anti-cult organization created by deprogrammer Ted Patrick that provided information on groups that it considered to be cults, as well as support and referrals to deprogrammers. It was founded in the wake ...
(CAN) in 1984. In 1979 another anti-cult group, the
American Family Foundation The International Cultic Studies Association (ICSA) is a non-profit anti-cult organization focusing on groups it defines as "cultic" and their processes. It publishes the ''International Journal of Cultic Studies'' and other materials. History ...
(AFF) was founded (which is now the
International Cultic Studies Association The International Cultic Studies Association (ICSA) is a non-profit anti-cult organization focusing on groups it defines as "cultic" and their processes. It publishes the ''International Journal of Cultic Studies'' and other materials. History ...
); it began organizing annual conferences, launched an information phone-line, and published the ''
Cult Observer The International Cultic Studies Association (ICSA) is a non-profit anti-cult organization focusing on groups it defines as "cultic" and their processes. It publishes the ''International Journal of Cultic Studies'' and other materials. History ...
'' and the ''
Cultic Studies Journal The International Cultic Studies Association (ICSA) is a non-profit anti-cult organization focusing on groups it defines as "cultic" and their processes. It publishes the ''International Journal of Cultic Studies'' and other materials. History ...
''. In 1996 CAN was sued for its involvement in the deprogramming of a member of the
United Pentecostal Church International The United Pentecostal Church International (UPCI) is a Oneness Pentecostal denomination headquartered in Weldon Spring, Missouri, United States. The United Pentecostal Church International was formed in 1945 by a merger of the former Pentecostal C ...
named
Jason Scott Jason Scott Sadofsky (born September 13, 1970), more commonly known as Jason Scott, is an American archivist, historian of technology, filmmaker, performer, and actor. Scott has been known by the online pseudonyms Sketch, SketchCow, The Slipped ...
. Other parties joined the lawsuit, and this bankrupted the organization. A group which included a number of
Scientologists Scientology is a set of beliefs and practices invented by American author L. Ron Hubbard, and an associated movement. It has been variously defined as a cult, a business, or a new religious movement. The most recent published census data in ...
purchased the "Cult Awareness Network" name and formed the "
New Cult Awareness Network The "New Cult Awareness Network" (NCAN, often referred to as simply the "Cult Awareness Network", though other than inheriting the name, it is unrelated to that older group) is an organization that provides information about cults, and is owne ...
." In the 1970s and 1980s American anti-cultist and
deprogrammer Deprogramming is a controversial tactic that attempts to help someone who has "strongly held convictions," often coming from cults or New Religious Movements (NRM). Deprogramming aims to assist a person who holds a controversial or restrictive be ...
Ted Patrick Theodore Roosevelt Patrick, Jr. (born 1930) is an American deprogrammer and author. He is considered to be the "father of deprogramming." Early life Ted Patrick was born in a red-light district of Chattanooga, Tennessee, in which he was surroun ...
was charged at least thirteen times and convicted at least three times for
kidnapping In criminal law, kidnapping is the unlawful confinement of a person against their will, often including transportation/asportation. The asportation and abduction element is typically but not necessarily conducted by means of force or fear: the p ...
and
unlawful imprisonment False imprisonment or unlawful imprisonment occurs when a person intentionally restricts another person’s movement within any area without legal authority, justification, or the restrained person's permission. Actual physical restraint is ...
for his deprograming activities. In 1980, Patrick was convicted of "
conspiracy A conspiracy, also known as a plot, is a secret plan or agreement between persons (called conspirers or conspirators) for an unlawful or harmful purpose, such as murder or treason, especially with political motivation, while keeping their agree ...
,
false imprisonment False imprisonment or unlawful imprisonment occurs when a person intentionally restricts another person’s movement within any area without legal authority, justification, or the restrained person's permission. Actual physical restraint is ...
and
kidnapping In criminal law, kidnapping is the unlawful confinement of a person against their will, often including transportation/asportation. The asportation and abduction element is typically but not necessarily conducted by means of force or fear: the p ...
" of Roberta McElfish, a waitress in
Tucson, Arizona , "(at the) base of the black ill , nicknames = "The Old Pueblo", "Optics Valley", "America's biggest small town" , image_map = , mapsize = 260px , map_caption = Interactive map ...
, after accepting
US$ The United States dollar (symbol: $; code: USD; also abbreviated US$ or U.S. Dollar, to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies; referred to as the dollar, U.S. dollar, American dollar, or colloquially buck) is the official ...
7,500 from her family to deprogram her.


United Kingdom

In the UK, MP Paul Rose established the first major British anti-cult group called
FAIR A fair (archaic: faire or fayre) is a gathering of people for a variety of entertainment or commercial activities. Fairs are typically temporary with scheduled times lasting from an afternoon to several weeks. Types Variations of fairs incl ...
(Family Action Information and Rescue/Resource) in 1976. In 1987 Ian Haworth founded the Cult Information Centre. Other groups like Deo Gloria Trust,
Reachout Trust Reachout Trust is a British evangelical Christian organisation. Its stated aims are to "examine in the light of the Christian gospel the beliefs and practices of people within the cults, occults, new age and all not upholding to biblical truth." ...
,
Catalyst Catalysis () is the process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction by adding a substance known as a catalyst (). Catalysts are not consumed in the reaction and remain unchanged after it. If the reaction is rapid and the catalyst recyc ...
, People's Organised Workshop on Ersatz Religion, and
Cultists Anonymous Cultists Anonymous (CA) was a British anti-cult organization made up of ex-cultists from Family, Action, Information, and Rescue (FAIR), Britain's largest anti-cult organization. CA formed in 1985 but rejoined FAIR in 1991.George D. Chryssides, ...
also grew during the 1970s and 1980s.George D. Chryssides. "Britain's Anti-cult movement." In ''New Religious Movements: Changes and Responses'', edited by Jamie Cresswell and Bryan Wilson, 257–73. London and New York: Routledge, 1999. In 1968, after a large movement from the public to investigate Scientology's effects on the health and well-being of its adherents,
Minister of Health A health minister is the member of a country's government typically responsible for protecting and promoting public health and providing welfare and other social security services. Some governments have separate ministers for mental health. Coun ...
Kenneth Robinson implemented measures to prevent the immigration of foreign and
Commonwealth A commonwealth is a traditional English term for a political community founded for the common good. Historically, it has been synonymous with "republic". The noun "commonwealth", meaning "public welfare, general good or advantage", dates from the ...
Scientologists into the United Kingdom. One measure was the automatic denial of
student visa A visa (from the Latin ''charta visa'', meaning "paper that has been seen") is a conditional authorization granted by a polity to a foreigner that allows them to enter, remain within, or leave its territory. Visas typically include limits on t ...
applications for foreign nationals seeking to study at Hubbard College at
East Grinstead East Grinstead is a town in West Sussex, England, near the East Sussex, Surrey, and Kent borders, south of London, northeast of Brighton, and northeast of the county town of Chichester. Situated in the extreme northeast of the county, the civ ...
or any other Scientological educational institution. Additionally, work permits to foreign nationals seeking employment in Scientology establishments were restricted. These measures were lifted in 1980 after a 1971 investigation headed by
John G. Foster John Gray Foster (May 27, 1823 – September 2, 1874) was an American soldier. A career military officer in the United States Army and a Union Army, Union general during the American Civil War, he served in North Carolina, North and South Caroli ...
believed that the "Scientology ban" was unfair. Despite this investigation, the
European Court of Justice The European Court of Justice (ECJ, french: Cour de Justice européenne), formally just the Court of Justice, is the supreme court of the European Union in matters of European Union law. As a part of the Court of Justice of the European Un ...
ruled that the United Kingdom was entitled to refuse the right of entry to nationals of
European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational political and economic union of member states that are located primarily in Europe. The union has a total area of and an estimated total population of about 447million. The EU has often been des ...
member states A member state is a state that is a member of an international organization or of a federation or confederation. Since the World Trade Organization (WTO) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) include some members that are not sovereign states ...
seeking employment in Scientology establishments.Barker, "British Right to Discriminate," 39. Sociologist Eileen Barker believes that three reasons led to the lifting of the "ban": (1) it was unenforceable, (2) it was hard to defend before the European Court of Human Rights, and (3) it was unfair since it was the only new religious movement that received such treatment. In 1999 the Church of Scientology attempted to obtain charitable status through the Charity Commission for England and Wales, Charity Commission of England and Wales, but their application was rejected and the Church did not appeal the decision.Johnathan Benthall. "Scientology's Winning Streak." ''Anthropology Weekly'' 30, no. 1 (2014): 3–4. In 2013 the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, UK Supreme Court ruled that the Scientology in the United Kingdom, Scientology chapel in London was a "place of meeting for religious worship" that could be registered as a place of marriage to the General Register Office, Registrar General of Births, Deaths and Marriages.


Australia

Australia's anti-cult movement began in the 1970s with the introduction of NRMs like Scientology and the Unification Church. Deprogrammings occurred throughout the 1970s and 1980s that resulted in numerous lawsuits resulting in a national transition away from deprogramming and toward
exit counseling Deprogramming is a controversial tactic that attempts to help someone who has "strongly held convictions," often coming from cults or New Religious Movements (NRM). Deprogramming aims to assist a person who holds a controversial or restrictive be ...
. In 2010, Independent politician, independent Senator Nick Xenophon attempted to enact legislation against NRMs – though primarily against the Church of Scientology and their Tax exemption, tax-exempt status – similar to those in France. However, his efforts were unsuccessful. Australia's main anti-cult organization is Cult Information and Family Support (CIFS), ran by Exit-counselor, exit counselor Tore Klevjer. It was founded by Ros Hodgkins, David Richardson, and nineteen others in 1996.Interview with Ann Wason Moore, "Fear creates a recipe for exploitation," ''Gold Coast Bulletin, The Gold Coast Bulletin'' (Southport, Queensland), 6 June 2020. CIFS combats NRMs as well as Lifestyle coach, lifestyle coaches and Multi-level marketing, multi-level marketing schemes; ''The Advertiser (Adelaide), The Advertiser'' wrote in 2017 that it also represents ex-NRM members. Other groups like Cult Counselling Australia (formed in 1991) exist in Australia to provide exit counseling and educational services.


Russia

In Russia anti-cultism appeared in the early 1990s since the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the 1991 August Coup. Some Russian Protestantism, Protestants criticized foreign missionaries, sects, and new religious movements. They hoped that taking part in anti-cult declarations could demonstrate that they were not "sectarians."Marat S. Shterin and James T. Richardson
"Effects of the Western Anti-Cult Movement on Development of Laws Concerning Religion in Post-Communist Russia."
''Journal of Church and State'' 42, no. 2 (Spring 2000): 247–71.
Some scholars have shown that anti-cult movements, especially with support of the government, can provoke serious religious conflicts in Russian society.Иваненко Сергей Игоревич (Latinization: Ivanenko Sergey Igorevich). "О РЕЛИГИОВЕДЧЕСКИЕХ АСПЕКТАХ ИЗУЧЕНИЯ "АНТИКУЛЬТОВОГО ДВИЖЕНИЯ: А также о его воздействии на государственно-конфессиональные отношения в современной России." (English: "On the Religious-studies aspects of the 'anti-cult movement': Its Impact on State-Confessional Relations in Modern Russia") Slavic Centre for Law and Justice. 17 August 2009. Retrieved 29 May 2022. http://www.sclj.ru/news/detail.php?SECTION_ID=214&ELEMENT_ID=2546 In 2008 the Ministry of Internal Affairs (Russia), Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs prepared a list of "extremist groups." At the top of the list were Islam, Islamic groups outside of "traditional Islam" (which is supervised by the Russian government); next were "Modern paganism, Pagan cults". In 2009 the Ministry of Justice (Russia), Russian Ministry of Justice set up a council called the Council of Experts Conducting State Religious Studies Expert Analysis. The new council listed 80 large sects which it considered potentially dangerous to Russian society and mentioned that there were thousands of smaller ones. Large sects listed included
the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, informally known as the LDS Church or Mormon Church, is a Nontrinitarianism, nontrinitarian Christianity, Christian church that considers itself to be the Restorationism, restoration of the ...
,
Jehovah's Witnesses Jehovah's Witnesses is a millenarian restorationist Christian denomination with nontrinitarian beliefs distinct from mainstream Christianity. The group reports a worldwide membership of approximately 8.7 million adherents involved in ...
, and what were called "Neo-charismatic movement, neo-Pentecostals."


China

China's modern anti-cult movement began in the late 1990s with the development of qigong groups, primarily Falun Gong. Anti-cult campaigns in the late twentieth century and early twenty-first centuries were founded on "scientific rationality and civilization," according to Medical anthropology, medical anthropologist Nancy N. Chen. Chinese authorities claimed that by July 2001 that Falun Gong specifically was responsible for over 1,600 deaths through induced suicide by hanging, self-immolation, Drowning, drownings, among others and the Murder, murders of practitioners' relatives. Chinese authorities adopted the negative term "xié jiào" (:zh:邪教, 邪教) to refer to new religious movements. It is roughly translated by "evil cult", but the term dates as far back as the seventh century CE with various meanings. About 10,000 Falun Gong protestors on 25 April 1999 demonstrated around Zhongnanhai, the seat of the Chinese Communist Party and State Council of the People's Republic of China, State Council, to recognize Falun Gong as a legitimate form of spirituality. In response, Beijing specifically labeled Falun Gong an illegal religious organization which violated the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, People's Republic of China's Constitution in May 1999. On 22 July 1999, the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress specifically banned Falun Gong. On 30 October 1999, the Standing Committee enacted a law that required courts, police, and prosecutors to prosecute "cult" activity generally.


Japan

Japan's modern anti-cult movement began in the 1980s when numerous groups – though primarily the Unification Church – began soliciting "spiritual sales" (:ja:霊感商法, 霊感商法) from new converts or people on the street. A lawyer's organization called the National Network of Lawyers Against Spiritual Sales (NNLASS) (:ja:全国霊感商法対策弁護士連絡会, 全国霊感商法対策弁護士連絡会) was formed to combat these "spiritual sales" and supposedly forced donations. According to NNLASS, the group received over 34,000 complaints about "spiritual sales" and forced donations by 2021 totaling to about 123.7 billion Japanese yen, yen (
US$ The United States dollar (symbol: $; code: USD; also abbreviated US$ or U.S. Dollar, to distinguish it from other dollar-denominated currencies; referred to as the dollar, U.S. dollar, American dollar, or colloquially buck) is the official ...
902 million). According to Yoshihide Sakurai, Japanese courts originally would require religious groups to return large donations if the person never joined the group, but once the person joined the group, their "spiritual sale" was made completely within their own free will and should not be returned. However, lawyers argued that if the person was forced to make a donation, then they were not making it out of their free will and thus their donation or sale should be returned. Based on a 2006 Tokyo District Court decision, the circumstances of whether or not the Unification Church used illegal recruiting or donation soliciting tactics were to be determined on a case-by-case basis, which was upheld by a 2007 appeal. In 1995, Aum Shinrikyo, a Japanese
new religious movement A new religious movement (NRM), also known as alternative spirituality or a new religion, is a religious or spiritual group that has modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin or th ...
, attacked a Tokyo subway sarin attack, Tokyo subway with sarin gas, killing 14 people and injuring about 1,000. After this incident, mainstream Japanese society faced their "cult problem" directly. Various anti-cult groups – many of them local – emerged from the publicity of the "Aum Affair". One of which is the Japan De-Culting Council (日本脱カルト研究会) on 11 November 1995. It was founded by lawyers, psychologists, academics, and other interested parties like ex-New religious movement, NRM members. It changed its name to the Japan Society for Cult Prevention and Recovery (:ja:日本脱カルト協会, 日本脱カルト協会) in April 2004. In 1989, Tsutsumi Sakamoto was an anti-cult lawyer working on a civil case against Aum Shinrikyo. At approximately 03:00 a.m. Japan Standard Time, JST (UTC+09:00, UTC+9:00), several members of Aum Shinrikyo entered Sakamoto's apartment in Yokohama. His wife, Satoko, and his 14-month-old son, Tatsuhiko, were killed as well. In the aftermath of the Aum Affair in 1995, some Aum Shinrikyo members and one former member in September 1995 tipped off National Police Agency (Japan), Japanese police about the general location of the bodies of the three victims, which were scattered to complicate search efforts. On 8 July 2022, Tetsuya Yamagami assassinated former Prime Minister of Japan Shinzo Abe. Upon his immediate arrest, Yamagami was reportedly frustrated at Abe's relationship with the Unification Church. Yamagami's mother reportedly made large donations to the Unification Church that bankrupted their family. Yamagami's uncle reported that the mother's donations totaled to 100 million yen (US$720,000).


Controversies


Polarized views among scholars

Social scientists, sociologists, religious studies scholars, psychologists and psychiatrists have studied the modern field of "cults" and new religious movements since the early 1970s. Debates about certain purported cults and about cults in general often become polarized with widely divergent opinions, not only among current followers and disaffected former members, but among scholars as well. Most academics agree that some groups have become problematic or very problematic, but they disagree over the extent to which new religious movements in general cause harm. For example, Bryan R. Wilson, Bryan Wilson, an expert on
new religious movement A new religious movement (NRM), also known as alternative spirituality or a new religion, is a religious or spiritual group that has modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin or th ...
s, argued that the Bruderhof Communities are not a cult similar to Jonestown, the Branch Davidians, Order of the Solar Temple, Solar Temple, Aum Shinrikyo and Heaven's Gate (religious group), Heaven's Gate. Scholars in the field of new religious movements confront many controversial subjects: * The validity of the testimonies of #Former members, former members. * The validity of the testimonies of current members. * The validity of and differences between
exit counseling Deprogramming is a controversial tactic that attempts to help someone who has "strongly held convictions," often coming from cults or New Religious Movements (NRM). Deprogramming aims to assist a person who holds a controversial or restrictive be ...
and coercive
deprogramming Deprogramming is a controversial tactic that attempts to help someone who has "strongly held convictions," often coming from cults or New Religious Movements (NRM). Deprogramming aims to assist a person who holds a controversial or restrictive be ...
. * The validity of evidence of harm caused by "cults." * Ethical concerns regarding new religious movements, for example free will and freedom of speech.Dick Anthony and Thomas Robbins. "Law, Social Science, and the 'Brainwashing' Exception to the First Amendment to the United States Constitution, First Amendment." ''Behavioral Sciences & the Law, Behavioral Science and the Law'' 10, no. 1 (1992): 5–29. * Opposition to "cults" vs. freedom of religion and religious intolerance. * The objectivity of all scholars studying new religious movements.
David G. Bromley David G. Bromley (born 1941) is a professor of sociology at Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA and the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, specialized in sociology of religion and the academic study of new religious movements ...
and Anson D. Shupe, Anson Shupe. ''iarchive:strangegods0000unse_l8h0, Strange Gods: The Great American Cult Scare''. Boston: Beacon Press, 1981.
* The acceptance or rejection of the APA Task Force on Deceptive and Indirect Methods of Persuasion and Control report and the Brainwashing, brainwashing thesis generally.David G. Bromley and James T. Richardson, eds. ''The Brainwashing/Deprogramming Controversy: Sociological, Psychological, Legal and Historical Perspectives''. Studies in Religion and Society. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1983.


Brainwashing and mind-control

Over the years various controversial theories of religious conversion, conversion and member retention have been proposed that link mind control to NRMs, and particularly those religious movements referred to as "
cult In modern English, ''cult'' is usually a pejorative term for a social group that is defined by its unusual religious, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs and rituals, or its common interest in a particular personality, object, or goal. This ...
s" by their critics. These theories resemble the original political brainwashing theories first developed by the CIA as a propaganda device to combat communism,Dick Anthony. "Pseudoscience and New religious movement, Minority Religions: An Evaluation of the Brainwashing Theories of Jean-Marie Abgrall." ''Social Justice Research'' 12, no. 4 (1999): 421–56. with some minor changes. Philip Zimbardo discusses mind control as "the process by which individual or collective freedom of choice and action is compromised by agents or agencies that modify or distort perception, motivation, affect, cognition and/or behavioral outcomes," and he suggests that any human being is susceptible to such manipulation. In a 1999 book, Robert Jay Lifton, Robert Lifton also applied his original ideas about thought reform to Aum Shinrikyo, concluding that in this context thought reform was possible without violence or physical coercion. Margaret Singer, who also spent time studying the political brainwashing of Korean prisoners of war, agreed with this conclusion: in her book ''Cults in Our Midst'' she describes six conditions which would create an atmosphere in which thought reform is possible. James T. Richardson observes that if the NRMs had access to powerful brainwashing techniques, one would expect that NRMs would have high growth rates, yet in fact most have not had notable success in recruitment. Most adherents participate for only a short time, and the success in retaining members is limited.James T. Richardson. "The Active vs. Passive Convert: Paradigm Conflict in Conversion/Recruitment Research." ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion'' 24, no. 2 (1985): 163–79. For this and other reasons, sociologists of religion including
David G. Bromley David G. Bromley (born 1941) is a professor of sociology at Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA and the University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, specialized in sociology of religion and the academic study of new religious movements ...
and Anson D. Shupe consider the idea that cults are brainwashing American youth to be "implausible."B. A. Robinson. "About 'cults': Allegations of brainwashing by new religious movements (a.k.a. 'cults')." Religious Tolerance. Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. Last modified 22 August 2007. Retrieved 29 May 2022. http://www.religioustolerance.org/brain_wa.htm In addition to Bromley, Thomas Robbins (sociologist), Thomas Robbins, Dick Anthony, Eileen Barker, Newton Maloney, Massimo Introvigne, John Hall, Lorne L. Dawson, Anson D. Shupe, J. Gordon Melton, Marc Galanter (psychiatrist), Marc Galanter, Saul Levine of Mount Wilson FM Broadcasters, Inc, among other scholars researching NRMs, have argued and established to the satisfaction of courts, relevant professional associations and scientific communities that there exists no scientific theory, generally accepted and based upon methodologically sound research, that supports the brainwashing theories as advanced by the anti-cult movement.


Deprogramming and exit counseling

Some members of the secular opposition to cults and to some new religious movements have argued that if brainwashing has deprived a person of their free will, treatment to restore their free will should take place, even if the "victim" opposes this. Precedents for this exist in the treatment of certain mental illnesses: in such cases medical and legal authorities recognize the condition as depriving sufferers of their ability to make appropriate decisions for themselves. But the practice of forcing treatment on a presumed victim of "brainwashing" (one definition of "
deprogramming Deprogramming is a controversial tactic that attempts to help someone who has "strongly held convictions," often coming from cults or New Religious Movements (NRM). Deprogramming aims to assist a person who holds a controversial or restrictive be ...
") has constantly proven controversial. human rights, Human-rights organizations (including the ACLU and Human Rights Watch) have criticized deprogramming. While only a small fraction of the anti-cult movement has had involvement in deprogramming, several deprogrammers (including a deprogramming pioneer,
Ted Patrick Theodore Roosevelt Patrick, Jr. (born 1930) is an American deprogrammer and author. He is considered to be the "father of deprogramming." Early life Ted Patrick was born in a red-light district of Chattanooga, Tennessee, in which he was surroun ...
) have served prison terms for acts sometimes associated with deprogramming including kidnapping and rape, while courts have acquitted others.


Responses of targeted groups and scholars

The Foundation against Intolerance of Religious Minorities, associated with Adidam, sees the use of terms "cult" and "cult leader" as detestable and as something to avoid at all costs. The Foundation regards such usage as the exercise of prejudice and discrimination against them in the same manner as the words "nigger" and "commie" served in the past to denigrate black (people), blacks and communism, Communists. In a paper presented at the 2000 meeting of the Society for the Scientific Study of Religion, Anson Shupe and Susan Darnell argued that although the
International Cultic Studies Association The International Cultic Studies Association (ICSA) is a non-profit anti-cult organization focusing on groups it defines as "cultic" and their processes. It publishes the ''International Journal of Cultic Studies'' and other materials. History ...
(ICSA, formerly known as the American Family Foundation) has presented "slanted, stereotypical images and language that has inflamed persons to perform extreme actions," the extent to which one can classify the ICSA and other anti-cult organizations as "hate group, hate-groups" (as defined by law in some jurisdictions or by racial or ethnic criteria in sociology) remains open to debate. In 2005, the Hate Crimes Unit of the Edmonton Police Service confiscated anti-Falun Gong materials distributed at the annual conference of the ICSA by staff members of the Chinese Consulate in Calgary. The materials, including the calling of Falun Gong a "cult," were identified as having breached the Criminal Code, which bans the willful promotion of hatred against identifiable religious groups (see also Hate group#Verbal violence, Verbal violence in hate groups). An article on the categorization of new religious movements in US media published by ''The Association for the Sociology of Religion'' (formerly the ''American'' ''Catholic Sociological Society'') criticizes the print media for failing to recognize social-scientific efforts in the area of new religious movements and its tendency to use anti-cultist definitions rather than social-scientific insight. It asserts that the "failure of the print media to recognize social-scientific efforts in the area of religious movement organizations (as [Barend van Driel and James T. Richardson's] previous research also shows) impels us to add yet another failing mark to the media report card Weiss (1985) has constructed to assess the media's reporting of the social sciences."Barend van Driel and James T. Richardson. "Research Note Categorization of New Religious Movements in American Print Media." ''Sociological Analysis'' 49, no. 2 (1988): 171–83.


See also

* Christian countercult movement * Parliamentary Commission on Cults in France (1995) * ''QAnon Anonymous'' – podcast debunking QAnon (the latter commonly referred to as a cult) * Religious persecution


References


Citations


Select Sources and Further Reading

* Amitrani, Alberto and Raffaella di Marzio
"'Mind Control' in New Religious Movements and the American Psychological Association,"
''
Cultic Studies Journal The International Cultic Studies Association (ICSA) is a non-profit anti-cult organization focusing on groups it defines as "cultic" and their processes. It publishes the ''International Journal of Cultic Studies'' and other materials. History ...
'' 17, (2000): 101–21. * Anthony, Dick "Pseudoscience and Minority Religions: An Evaluation of the Brainwashing Theories of Jean-Marie Abgrall." ''Social Justice Research'' 12, no. 4 (1999): 421–456. * Arweck, Elisabeth. ''Researching New Religious Movements: Responses and Redefinitions''. London and New York: Routledge, 2006. * Eileen Barker, Barker, Eileen. ''The Making of a Moonie, The Making of a Moonie: Choice or Brainwashing?''. 1984. Reprint, Oxford and Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, 1989. * Barker, Eileen. ''New Religious Movements: A Practical Introduction''. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1989. * James A. Beckford, Beckford, James A. ''Cult Controversies: The Societal Response to New Religious Movements.'' London: Tavistock, 1985. ISBN 9780422796408 * Bromley, David G. and Anson Shupe. "Anti-cultism in the United States: Origins, Ideology, and Organizational Development." ''Social Compass'' 42, no. 2 (1995): 221–36. * Bromley, David G. and Anson Shupe. "Public Reaction against New Religious Movements." In ''Cults and New Religious Movements: A Report of the Committee on Psychiatry and Religion of the American Psychiatric Association'', edited by Marc Galanter (psychiatrist), Marc Galanter. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association, 1989. * Bromley, David G. and Anson Shupe. ''Strange Gods: The Great American Cult Scare''. Boston: Beacon Press, 1981. * Bromley, David G., Anson Shupe, and J. C. Ventimiglia. "Atrocity tale, Atrocity Tales, the Unification Church, and the Social Construction of Evil." ''Journal of Communication'' 29, no. 3 (1979): 42–53. * Bromley. David G. and James T. Richardson, eds. ''The Brainwashing/Deprogramming Controversy: Sociological, Psychological, Legal and Historical Perspectives''. Studies in Religion and Society. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1983. * George Chryssides, Chryssides, George D. ''Exploring New Religions''. London and New York: Continuum International Publishing Group, Continuum, 1999. * Douglas E. Cowan, Cowan, Douglas E. ''Bearing False Witness?: An Introduction to the Christian countercult movement, Christian Countercult''. London and Westport, Connecticut, Westport, CT: Praeger Paperback, Praeger, 2003. * Cowan, Douglas E. "Exits and Migrations: Foregrounding the Christian Countercult." ''Journal of Contemporary Religion'' 17, no. 3 (2002): 339–54. * Cresswell, Jamie and Bryan R. Wilson, Bryan Wilson, eds. ''New Religious Movements: Changes and Responses''. London and New York: Routledge, 1999. * Halperin, David A., ed. ''Psychodynamic Perspectives on Religion, Sect, and Cult''. Boston, Bristol, and London: John Wright and PSG, 1983. * Jeffrey Kaplan (academic), Kaplan, Jeffrey. "The Anti-Cult Movement in America: An History of Cultural Perspective." ''Syzygy'' 2, no. 1 (1993): 267–96. * Aidan A. Kelly, Kelly, Aidan A., ed. ''The Evangelical Christian Anti-Cult Movement: Christian Counter-Cult Literature''. Cults and New Religions: Sources for Study of Nonconventional Religious Groups in Nineteenth-and-Twentieth-Century America. New York and London: Garland, 1990. * Janja Lalich, Lalich, Janja. ''Bounded Choice: True Believers and Charismatic Cults''. London, Los Angeles, and Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004. * Lalich, Janja and Karla McLaren. ''Escaping Utopia: Growing Up in a Cult, Getting Out, and Starting Over''. New York and Oxford: Routledge, 2018. * Michael Langone, Langone, Michael. "Cults, Psychological Manipulation, and Society: International Perspectives – An Overview." Paper presented at American Family Foundation Annual Conference at University of Minnesota, 14 May 1999. Published digitally and archived o
Wayback Machine
(retrieved 29 May 2022). * Langone, Michael
"On Dialogue Between the Two Tribes of Cultic Researchers."
''Cultic Studies Newsletter'' 2, no. 1 (1983): 11–15. * Langone, Michael D., ed. ''Recovery from Cults (book), Recovery From Cults: Help for Victims of Psychological and Spiritual Abuse''. London and New York: W. W. Norton and American Family Foundation, 1993. * Langone, Michael
"Secular and Religious Critiques of Cults: Complementary Visions, Not Irresolvable Conflicts."
''Cultic Studies Journal'' 12, no. 2 (1995): 166–86. * Robert Jay Lifton, Lifton, Robert Jay. ''Losing Reality: On Cults, Cultism, and the Mindset of Political and Religious Zealotry''. London and New York: The New Press, 2019. * Lifton, Robert Jay. ''Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism, Thought Reform and the Psychology of Totalism: A Study of "Brainwashing" in China''. 1961. Reprint, London and Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1989. * Thomas Robbins (sociologist), Robbins, Thomas. "'Quo Vadis' the Scientific Study of New Religious Movements?" ''Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion'' 39, no. 4 (2000): 515–23. * Robbin, Thomas and Dick Anthony, "Cults in the late Twentieth Century" in ''Encyclopedia of the American Religious Experience: Studies of Traditions and Movements'', edited by Charles H. Lippy and Peter W. Williams. Vol. 2. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1988. * Shupe, Anson D. and David G. Bromley. ''A Documentary History of the Anti-Cult Movement''. Arlington, Texas, Arlington, TX: Center for Social Research, University of Texas at Arlington, University of Texas, 1985. * Shupe, Anson D. and David G. Bromley, eds. ''Anti-Cult Movements in Cross-Cultural Perspective''. Religious Information Systems. London and New York: Garland, 1994. * Shupe, Anson D., David G. Bromley, Donna L. Oliver. ''The Anti-Cult Movement in America: A Bibliography and Historical Survey''. Edited by J. Gordon Melton. Garland Reference Library of Social Science. New York: Garland Publishing, Garland, 1984. * Wilson, Bryan R., ''Apostates and New Religious Movements.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994. * Zablocki, Benjamin David and Thomas Robbins, eds. ''Misunderstanding Cults: Searching for Objectivity in A Controversial Field''. Toronto, London, and Buffalo, NY: University of Toronto Press, 2001. {{Authority control Anti-cult movement, Religious activism Social movements Religious discrimination Witch hunting Cults