Renewable energy Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources that are naturally replenished on a human timescale. It includes sources such as sunlight, wind, the movement of water, and geothermal heat. Although most renewable energy ...

sources such as solar,

wind Wind is the natural movement of air or other gases relative to a planet's surface. Winds occur on a range of scales, from thunderstorm flows lasting tens of minutes, to local breezes generated by heating of land surfaces and lasting a few hou ...

tidal Tidal is the adjectival form of tide. Tidal may also refer to: * ''Tidal'' (album), a 1996 album by Fiona Apple * Tidal (king), a king involved in the Battle of the Vale of Siddim * TidalCycles, a live coding environment for music * Tidal (servic ...

hydro Hydro from Ancient Greek word ὕδωρ (húdōr), meaning ''water''. Hydro may also refer to: Energy technologies * Water-derived power or energy: ** Hydropower, derived from water ** Hydroelectricity, in electrical form * "Hydro", AC mains ...

biomass Biomass is plant-based material used as a fuel for heat or electricity production. It can be in the form of wood, wood residues, energy crops, agricultural residues, and waste from industry, farms, and households. Some people use the terms bi ...

, and geothermal have become significant sectors of the energy market. The rapid growth of these sources in the 21st century has been prompted by increasing costs of

fossil fuel A fossil fuel is a hydrocarbon-containing material formed naturally in the Earth's crust from the remains of dead plants and animals that is extracted and burned as a fuel. The main fossil fuels are coal, oil, and natural gas. Fossil fuels m ...

s as well as their

environmental impact Environmental issues are effects of human activity on the biophysical environment, most often of which are harmful effects that cause environmental degradation. Environmental protection is the practice of protecting the natural environment on t ...

issues that significantly lowered their use.

Copper Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkis ...

plays an important role in these renewable energy systems. Copper usage averages up to five times more in renewable energy systems than in traditional power generation, such as fossil fuel and

nuclear Nuclear may refer to: Physics Relating to the nucleus of the atom: * Nuclear engineering *Nuclear physics *Nuclear power *Nuclear reactor *Nuclear weapon *Nuclear medicine *Radiation therapy *Nuclear warfare Mathematics *Nuclear space *Nuclear ...

power plants.The Rise Of Solar: A Unique Opportunity For Copper; Solar Industry Magazine; April 2017; Zolaika Strong; https://issues.solarindustrymag.com/article/rise-solar-unique-opportunity-copper Since copper is an excellent

thermal A thermal column (or thermal) is a rising mass of buoyant air, a convective current in the atmosphere, that transfers heat energy vertically. Thermals are created by the uneven heating of Earth's surface from solar radiation, and are an example ...

and

electrical conductor In physics and electrical engineering, a conductor is an object or type of material that allows the flow of charge (electric current) in one or more directions. Materials made of metal are common electrical conductors. Electric current is gener ...

among engineering metals (second only to silver), electrical systems that utilize copper generate and transmit energy with high efficiency and with minimum environmental impacts. When choosing electrical conductors, facility planners and engineers factor capital investment costs of materials against operational savings due to their electrical energy efficiencies over their useful lives, plus maintenance costs. Copper often fares well in these calculations. A factor called "copper usage intensity,” is a measure of the quantity of copper necessary to install one megawatt of new power-generating capacity. Residuo electronico colombia cobre reciclaje metales 2

Residuo electronico colombia cobre reciclaje metales 2

When planning for a new renewable power facility, engineers and product specifiers seek to avoid supply shortages of selected materials. According to the

United States Geological Survey The United States Geological Survey (USGS), formerly simply known as the Geological Survey, is a scientific agency of the United States government. The scientists of the USGS study the landscape of the United States, its natural resources, ...

, in-ground copper reserves have increased more than 700% since 1950, from almost 100 million tonnes to 720 million tonnes in 2017, despite the fact that world refined usage has more than tripled in the last 50 years. Copper resources are estimated to exceed 5,000 million tonnes. Bolstering the supply from

copper extraction Copper extraction refers to the methods used to obtain copper from its ores. The conversion of copper consists of a series of physical and electrochemical processes. Methods have evolved and vary with country depending on the ore source, loca ...

is the fact that more than 30 percent of copper installed during the last decade came from recycled sources. Its

recycling rate The following table gives the percentages of municipal waste that is recycled, incinerated, incinerated to produce energy and landfill A landfill site, also known as a tip, dump, rubbish dump, garbage dump, or dumping ground, is a site for the ...

is higher than any other metal. This article discusses the role of copper in various renewable energy generation systems.

Overview

The majority of copper usage, worldwide, is for electrical wiring, including the coils of generators and motors. Copper plays a larger role in renewable energy generation than in conventional

thermal power plants A thermal power station is a type of power station in which heat energy is converted to electrical energy. In a steam-generating cycle heat is used to boil water in a large pressure vessel to produce high-pressure steam, which drives a steam ...

in terms of tonnage of copper per unit of installed power. The copper usage intensity of renewable energy systems is four to six times higher than in fossil fuel or nuclear plants. So for example, while conventional power requires approximately 1

tonne The tonne ( or ; symbol: t) is a unit of mass equal to 1000 kilograms. It is a non-SI unit accepted for use with SI. It is also referred to as a metric ton to distinguish it from the non-metric units of the short ton ( United State ...

of copper per installed

megawatt The watt (symbol: W) is the unit of Power (physics), power or radiant flux in the International System of Units, International System of Units (SI), equal to 1 joule per second or 1 kg⋅m2⋅s−3. It is used to quantification (science), ...

(MW), renewable technologies such as wind and solar require four to six times more copper per installed MW. This is because copper is spread over much larger land areas, particularly in solar and wind energy power plants. Power and grounding cables must run far to connect components that are widely dispersed, including to energy storage systems and to the main electrical grid. Wind and solar

photovoltaic Photovoltaics (PV) is the conversion of light into electricity using semiconducting materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon studied in physics, photochemistry, and electrochemistry. The photovoltaic effect is commercially us ...

energy systems have the highest copper content of all renewable energy technologies. A single wind farm can contain between 2000 and 7000 tons of copper. A photovoltaic solar power plant contains approximately 5.5 tons of copper per megawatt of power generation. A single 660-kW turbine is estimated to contain some 800 pounds (350 kg) of copper. The total amount of copper used in renewable-based and distributed electricity generation in 2011 was estimated to be 272 kilotonnes (kt). Cumulative copper use through 2011 was estimated to be 1,071 kt. Copper conductors are used in major electrical renewable energy components, such as

turbines A turbine ( or ) (from the Greek , ''tyrbē'', or Latin ''turbo'', meaning vortex) is a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful Work (physics), work. The work produced by a turbine can be used ...

, generators,

transformers ''Transformers'' is a media franchise produced by American toy company Hasbro and Japanese toy company Takara Tomy. It primarily follows the Autobots and the Decepticons, two alien robot factions at war that can transform into other forms, suc ...

inverter A power inverter, inverter or invertor is a power electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). The resulting AC frequency obtained depends on the particular device employed. Inverters do the opp ...

electrical cable An electrical cable is an assembly of one or more wires running side by side or bundled, which is used to carry electric current. One or more electrical cables and their corresponding connectors may be formed into a ''cable assembly'', which ...

power electronics Power electronics is the application of electronics to the control and conversion of electric power. The first high-power electronic devices were made using mercury-arc valves. In modern systems, the conversion is performed with semiconducto ...

, and information cable. Copper usage is approximately the same in turbines/generators, transformers/inverters, and cables. Much less copper is used in power electronics. Solar thermal heating and cooling energy systems rely on copper for their thermal energy efficiency benefits. Copper is also used as a special

corrosion-resistant Corrosion is a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more chemically stable oxide. It is the gradual deterioration of materials (usually a metal) by chemical or electrochemical reaction with their environment. Corrosion engine ...

material in renewable energy systems in wet,

humid Humidity is the concentration of water vapor present in the air. Water vapor, the gaseous state of water, is generally invisible to the human eye. Humidity indicates the likelihood for precipitation, dew, or fog to be present. Humidity depen ...

, and saline corrosive environments. Copper is a sustainable material that is 100% recyclable. The recycling rate of copper is higher than any other metal. At the end of the useful life of the renewable energy power plant or its electrical or thermal components, the copper can be recycled with no loss of its beneficial properties.

Solar photovoltaic power generation

There is eleven to forty times more copper per unit of generation in

photovoltaic system A photovoltaic system, also PV system or solar power system, is an electric power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and co ...

s than in conventional fossil fuel plants. The usage of copper in photovoltaic systems averages around 4-5 tonnes per MWWill the Transition to Renewable Energy Be Paved in Copper?, Renewable Energy World; Jan 15, 2016; https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/articles/2016/01/will-the-transition-to-renewable-energy-be-paved-in-copper.html or higher if conductive ribbon strips that connect individual PV cells are considered. Copper is used in: * small wires that interconnect

photovoltaic modules Photovoltaics (PV) is the conversion of light into electricity using semiconducting materials that exhibit the photovoltaic effect, a phenomenon studied in physics, photochemistry, and electrochemistry. The photovoltaic effect is commercially us ...

* earthing grids in

electrode An electrode is an electrical conductor used to make contact with a nonmetallic part of a circuit (e.g. a semiconductor, an electrolyte, a vacuum or air). Electrodes are essential parts of batteries that can consist of a variety of materials de ...

earth pegs, horizontal plates, naked cables, and wires * DC cables that connect photovoltaic modules to

inverters A power inverter, inverter or invertor is a power electronic device or circuitry that changes direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC). The resulting AC frequency obtained depends on the particular device employed. Inverters do the opp ...

* low-voltage AC cables that connect inverters to metering systems and protection cabinets * high-voltage AC cables * communication cables * inverters/power electronics * ribbons * transformer windings. Copper used in photovoltaic systems in 2011 was estimated to be 150 kt. Cumulative copper usage in photovoltaic systems through 2011 was estimated to be 350 kt.

Photovoltaic system configurations

Solar photovoltaic (PV) systems are highly scalable, ranging from small rooftop systems to large

photovoltaic power station A photovoltaic power station, also known as a solar park, solar farm, or solar power plant, is a large-scale grid-connected photovoltaic power system (PV system) designed for the supply of merchant power. They are different from most building- ...

with capacities of hundreds of

s. In residential systems, copper intensity appears to be linearly scalable with the capacity of the electrical generation system. Residential and community-based systems generally range in capacity from 10 kW to 1 MW. PV cells are grouped together in solar modules. These modules are connected to panels and then into PV arrays. In

grid-connected photovoltaic power system A grid-connected photovoltaic system, or grid-connected PV system is an electricity generating solar PV power system that is connected to the utility grid. A grid-connected PV system consists of solar panels, one or several solar inverter, invert ...

, arrays can form sub-fields from which electricity is collected and transported towards the grid connection. Copper

solar cable A photovoltaic system, also PV system or solar power system, is an electric power system designed to supply usable solar power by means of photovoltaics. It consists of an arrangement of several components, including solar panels to absorb and co ...

s connect modules (module cable), arrays (array cable), and sub-fields (field cable). Whether a system is connected to the grid or not, electricity collected from the PV cells needs to be converted from DC to AC and stepped up in voltage. This is done by

solar inverter A solar inverter or photovoltaic (PV) inverter is a type of power inverter which converts the variable direct current (DC) output of a photovoltaic solar panel into a utility frequency alternating current (AC) that can be fed into a commercial ...

s which contain copper windings, as well as with copper-containing power electronics.

Solar cells

The

industry uses several different

semiconducting material A semiconductor is a material which has an electrical conductivity value falling between that of a conductor, such as copper, and an insulator, such as glass. Its resistivity falls as its temperature rises; metals behave in the opposite way. ...

s for the production of

solar cells A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electronic device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect, which is a physics, physical and Chemical substance, chemical phenomenon.The Emerging Electrical Markets for Copper, Bloomsbury Minerals Economics Ltd., July 6, 2010; Independent research study available at Leonardo Energy - Ask an Expert; Conventional first-generation

crystalline silicon Crystalline silicon or (c-Si) Is the crystalline forms of silicon, either polycrystalline silicon (poly-Si, consisting of small crystals), or monocrystalline silicon (mono-Si, a continuous crystal). Crystalline silicon is the dominant semicondu ...

(c-Si) technology includes

monocrystalline silicon Monocrystalline silicon, more often called single-crystal silicon, in short mono c-Si or mono-Si, is the base material for silicon-based discrete components and integrated circuits used in virtually all modern electronic equipment. Mono-Si also ...

and

polycrystalline silicon Polycrystalline silicon, or multicrystalline silicon, also called polysilicon, poly-Si, or mc-Si, is a high purity, polycrystalline form of silicon, used as a raw material by the solar photovoltaic and electronics industry. Polysilicon is produ ...

. In order to reduce costs of this wafer-based technology, copper-contacted silicon solar cells are emerging as an important alternative to

silver Silver is a chemical element with the Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag (from the Latin ', derived from the Proto-Indo-European wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/h₂erǵ-, ''h₂erǵ'': "shiny" or "white") and atomic number 47. A soft, whi ...

as the preferred conductor material. Challenges with solar cell metallization lie in the creation of a homogenous and qualitatively high-value layer between silicon and copper to serves as a barrier against copper diffusion into the

semiconductor A semiconductor is a material which has an electrical resistivity and conductivity, electrical conductivity value falling between that of a electrical conductor, conductor, such as copper, and an insulator (electricity), insulator, such as glas ...

. Copper-based front-side metallization in silicon solar cells is a significant step towards lower cost. The second-generation technology includes

thin film solar cell A thin-film solar cell is a second generation solar cell that is made by depositing one or more thin layers, or thin film (TF) of photovoltaic material on a substrate, such as glass, plastic or metal. Thin-film solar cells are commercially use ...

s. Despite having a slightly lower

conversion efficiency Energy conversion efficiency (''η'') is the ratio between the useful output of an energy conversion machine and the input, in energy terms. The input, as well as the useful output may be chemical, electric power, mechanical work, light (radi ...

than conventional PV technology, the overall

cost-per-watt Different methods of electricity generation can incur a variety of different costs, which can be divided into three general categories: 1) wholesale costs, or all costs paid by utilities associated with acquiring and distributing electricity to ...

is still lower. Commercially significant thin film technologies include

copper indium gallium selenide solar cell A copper indium gallium selenide solar cell (or CIGS cell, sometimes CI(G)S or CIS cell) is a thin-film solar cell used to convert sunlight into electric power. It is manufactured by depositing a thin layer of copper indium gallium selenide soluti ...

s (CIGS) and

cadmium telluride photovoltaics Cadmium telluride (CdTe) photovoltaics is a photovoltaic (PV) technology based on the use of cadmium telluride in a thin semiconductor layer designed to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity. Cadmium telluride PV is the only thin film ...

(CdTe), while

amorphous silicon Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is the non-crystalline form of silicon used for solar cells and thin-film transistors in LCDs. Used as semiconductor material for a-Si solar cells, or thin-film silicon solar cells, it is deposited in thin films onto ...

(a-Si) and

micromorphous silicon A thin-film solar cell is a second generation solar cell that is made by depositing one or more thin layers, or thin film (TF) of photovoltaic material on a substrate, such as glass, plastic or metal. Thin-film solar cells are commercially use ...

(m-Si) tandem cells are slowly being outcompeted in recent years. CIGS, which is actually copper (indium-gallium) diselenide, or Cu(InGa)Se₂, differs from silicon in that it is a

heterojunction A heterojunction is an interface between two layers or regions of dissimilar semiconductors. These semiconducting materials have unequal band gaps as opposed to a homojunction. It is often advantageous to engineer the electronic energy bands in many ...

. It has the highest solar

energy conversion efficiency Energy conversion efficiency (''η'') is the ratio between the useful output of an energy conversion machine and the input, in energy terms. The input, as well as the useful output may be chemical, electric power, mechanical work, light (radia ...

(~20%) among thin film materials. Because CIGS strongly absorbs sunlight, a much thinner film is required than with other semiconductor materials. A photovoltaic cell manufacturing process has been developed that makes it possible to print CIGS semi-conductors. This technology has the potential to reduce the price per solar watt delivered. Mono-dispersed

copper sulfide Copper sulfides describe a family of chemical compounds and minerals with the formula CuxSy. Both minerals and synthetic materials comprise these compounds. Some copper sulfides are economically important ores. Prominent copper sulfide minerals ...

nanocrystals A ''nanocrystal'' is a material particle having at least one dimension smaller than 100 nanometres, based on quantum dots (a nanoparticle) and composed of atoms in either a single-crystal, single- or polycrystalline, poly-crystalline arrangement. ...

are being researched as alternatives to conventional single crystals and thin films for photovoltaic devices. This technology, which is still in its infancy, has potential for

dye-sensitized solar cells A dye-sensitized solar cell (DSSC, DSC, DYSC or Grätzel cell) is a low-cost solar cell belonging to the group of thin film solar cells. It is based on a semiconductor formed between a photo-sensitized anode and an electrolyte, a '' photoelectr ...

, all-inorganic solar cells, and hybrid nano-crystal-polymer composite solar cells.

Cables

Solar generation systems cover large areas. There are many connections among modules and arrays, and connections among arrays in sub-fields and linkages to the network. Solar cables are used for wiring solar power plants. The amount of cabling involved can be substantial. Typical sizes of copper cables used are 4–6 mm² for module cable, 6–10 mm² for array cable, and 30–50 mm² for field cable.

Energy efficiency and system design

Energy efficiency and renewable energy are twin pillars of a sustainable energy future. However, there is little linking of these pillars despite their potential synergies. The more efficiently energy services are delivered, the faster renewable energy can become an effective and significant contributor of primary energy. The more energy is obtained from renewable sources, the less fossil fuel energy is required to provide that same energy demand.Renewables 2012: Global status report; REN 21 (Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century; This linkage of renewable energy with energy efficiency relies in part on the electrical energy efficiency benefits of copper. Increasing the

diameter In geometry, a diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the center of the circle and whose endpoints lie on the circle. It can also be defined as the longest chord of the circle. Both definitions are also valid for ...

of a copper cable increases its electrical

energy efficiency Energy efficiency may refer to: * Energy efficiency (physics), the ratio between the useful output and input of an energy conversion process ** Electrical efficiency, useful power output per electrical power consumed ** Mechanical efficiency, a ra ...

''(see:

Copper wire and cable Copper has been used in electrical wiring since the invention of the electromagnet and the telegraph in the 1820s. The invention of the telephone in 1876 created further demand for copper wire as an electrical conductor. Copper is the electri ...

)''. Thicker cables reduce resistive (I²R) loss, which affects lifetime profitability of PV system investments. Complex cost evaluations, factoring extra costs for materials, the amount of solar radiation directed towards solar modules per year (accounting for diurnal and seasonal variations, subsidies, tariffs, payback periods, etc.) are necessary to determine whether higher initial investments for thicker cables are justified. Depending upon circumstances, some conductors in PV systems can be specified with either copper or

aluminum Aluminium (aluminum in American and Canadian English) is a chemical element with the symbol Al and atomic number 13. Aluminium has a density lower than those of other common metals, at approximately one third that of steel. It has ...

. As with other electrical conducting systems, there are advantages to each ''(see:

)''. Copper is the preferred material when high electrical conductivity characteristics and flexibility of the cable are of paramount importance. Also, copper is more suitable for small roof facilities, in smaller cable trays, and when ducting in

steel Steel is an alloy made up of iron with added carbon to improve its strength and fracture resistance compared to other forms of iron. Many other elements may be present or added. Stainless steels that are corrosion- and oxidation-resistant ty ...

plastic Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be moulded, extruded or pressed into solid objects of various shapes. This adaptab ...

pipes. Cable ducting is not needed in smaller power facilities where copper cables are less than 25mm². Without duct work, installation costs are lower with copper than with aluminum.

Data communications Data transmission and data reception or, more broadly, data communication or digital communications is the transfer and reception of data in the form of a digital bitstream or a digitized analog signal transmitted over a point-to-point or ...

networks rely on copper,

optical fiber An optical fiber, or optical fibre in Commonwealth English, is a flexible, transparent fiber made by drawing glass (silica) or plastic to a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. Optical fibers are used most often as a means to ...

, and/or

radio Radio is the technology of signaling and communicating using radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 30 hertz (Hz) and 300 gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device called a transmit ...

links. Each material has its advantages and disadvantages. Copper is more reliable than radio links. Signal attenuation with copper wires and cables can be resolved with signal amplifiers.

Concentrating solar thermal power

Concentrating solar power Concentrated solar power (CSP, also known as concentrating solar power, concentrated solar thermal) systems generate solar power by using mirrors or lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight into a receiver. Electricity is generated when ...

(CSP), also known as solar thermal electricity (STE), uses arrays of

mirror A mirror or looking glass is an object that Reflection (physics), reflects an image. Light that bounces off a mirror will show an image of whatever is in front of it, when focused through the lens of the eye or a camera. Mirrors reverse the ...

s that concentrate the sun's rays to temperatures between 400⁰C and 1000⁰C. Electrical power is produced when the concentrated light is converted to heat, which drives a heat engine (usually a

steam turbine A steam turbine is a machine that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and uses it to do mechanical work on a rotating output shaft. Its modern manifestation was invented by Charles Parsons in 1884. Fabrication of a modern steam turbin ...

) connected to an electrical power generator. A CSP system consists of: 1) a concentrator or collector containing

s that reflect

solar radiation Solar irradiance is the power per unit area (surface power density) received from the Sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range of the measuring instrument. Solar irradiance is measured in watts per square metre (W/m ...

and deliver it to the receiver; 2) a receiver that absorbs concentrated sunlight and transfers heat energy to a working fluid (usually a

mineral oil Mineral oil is any of various colorless, odorless, light mixtures of higher alkanes from a mineral source, particularly a distillate of petroleum, as distinct from usually edible vegetable oils. The name 'mineral oil' by itself is imprecise, ...

, or more rarely, molten

salts In chemistry, a salt is a chemical compound consisting of an ionic assembly of positively charged cations and negatively charged anions, which results in a compound with no net electric charge. A common example is table salt, with positively cha ...

metals A metal (from Greek μέταλλον ''métallon'', "mine, quarry, metal") is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are typicall ...

steam Steam is a substance containing water in the gas phase, and sometimes also an aerosol of liquid water droplets, or air. This may occur due to evaporation or due to boiling, where heat is applied until water reaches the enthalpy of vaporization ...

air The atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases, known collectively as air, retained by Earth's gravity that surrounds the planet and forms its planetary atmosphere. The atmosphere of Earth protects life on Earth by creating pressure allowing for ...

); 3) a transport and storage system that passes the fluid from the receiver to the power conversion system; and 4) a

that converts thermal power to electricity on demand. Copper is used in field power

cables Cable may refer to: Mechanical * Nautical cable, an assembly of three or more ropes woven against the weave of the ropes, rendering it virtually waterproof * Wire rope, a type of rope that consists of several strands of metal wire laid into a hel ...

, grounding networks, and

motors An engine or motor is a machine designed to convert one or more forms of energy into mechanical energy. Available energy sources include potential energy (e.g. energy of the Earth's gravitational field as exploited in hydroelectric power gen ...

for tracking and pumping fluids, as well as in the main generator and

high voltage High voltage electricity refers to electrical potential large enough to cause injury or damage. In certain industries, ''high voltage'' refers to voltage above a certain threshold. Equipment and conductors that carry high voltage warrant spec ...

transformer A transformer is a passive component that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit to another circuit, or multiple circuits. A varying current in any coil of the transformer produces a varying magnetic flux in the transformer' ...

s. Typically, there is about 200 tonnes copper for a 50 MW power plant. It has been estimated that copper usage in concentrated solar thermal power plants was 2 kt in 2011. Cumulative copper usage in these plants through 2011 was estimated to be 7 kt. There are four main types of CSP technologies, each containing a different amount of copper: parabolic trough plants, tower plants, distributed linear absorber systems including linear Fresnel plants, and dish Stirling plants. The use of copper in these plants is described here.

Parabolic trough plants

Parabolic trough A parabolic trough is a type of solar thermal collector that is straight in one dimension and curved as a parabola in the other two, lined with a polished metal mirror. The sunlight which enters the mirror parallel to its plane of symmetry is foc ...

plants are the most common CSP technology, representing about 94% of power installed in Spain. These plants collect solar energy in parabolic trough concentrators with linear collector tubes. The heat transfer fluids are typically synthetic oil that circulates through tubes at inlet outlet/temperatures of 300 °C to 400 °C. The typical storage capacity of a 50 MW facility is 7 hours at nominal power. A plant of this size and storage capacity can generate 160 GWh/year in a region like Spain. In parabolic trough plants, copper is specified in the solar collector field (power cables, signals, earthing, electrical motors); steam cycle (water pumps, condenser fans, cabling to consumption points, control signal and sensors, motors), electricity generators (alternator, transformer), and storage systems (circulating pumps, cabling to consumption points). A 50 MW plant with 7.5 hours of storage contains approximately 196 tonnes of copper, of which 131,500 kg are in cables and 64,700 kg are in various equipment (generators, transformers, mirrors, and motors). This translates to about 3.9 tonnes/MW, or, in other terms, 1.2 tonnes/GWh/year. A plant of the same size without storage can have 20% less copper in the solar field and 10% less in the electronic equipment. A 100 MW plant will have 30% less relative copper content per MW in the solar field and 10% less in electronic equipment. Copper quantities also vary according to design. The solar field of a typical 50 MW power plant with 7 hours of storage capacity consists of 150 loops and 600 motors, while a similar plant without storage uses 100 loops and 400 motors. Motorized valves for mass flow control in the loops rely on more copper. Mirrors use a small amount of copper to provide

galvanic corrosion Galvanic corrosion (also called bimetallic corrosion or dissimilar metal corrosion) is an electrochemical process in which one metal corrodes preferentially when it is in electrical contact with another, in the presence of an electrolyte. A sim ...

protection to the reflective silver layer. Changes in the size of the plants, size of collectors, efficiencies of heat transfer fluids will also affect material volumes.

Tower plants

Tower plants, also called central tower power plants, may become the preferred CSP technology in the future. They collect solar energy concentrated by the

heliostat A heliostat (from ''helios'', the Greek word for ''sun'', and ''stat'', as in stationary) is a device that includes a mirror, usually a plane mirror, which turns so as to keep reflecting sunlight toward a predetermined target, compensating ...

field in a central receiver mounted at the top of the tower. Each heliostat tracks the Sun along two axes (azimuth and elevation). Therefore, two motors per unit are required. Copper is required in the heliostat field (power cables, signal, earthing, motors), receiver (trace heating, signal cables), storage system (circulating pumps, cabling to consumption points), electricity generation (alternator, transformer), steam cycle (water pumps, condenser fans), cabling to consumption points, control signal and sensors, and motors. A 50 MW solar tower facility with 7.5 hours of storage uses about 219 tonnes of copper. This translates to 4.4 tonnes of copper/MW, or, in other terms, 1.4 tonnes/GWh/year. Of this amount, cables account for approximately 154,720 kg. Electronic equipment, such as generators, transformers, and motors, account for approximately 64,620 kg of copper. A 100 MW plant has slightly more copper per MW in the solar field because the efficiency of the heliostat field diminishes with the size. A 100 MW plant will have somewhat less copper per MW in process equipment.

Linear Fresnel plants

Linear Fresnel plants use linear reflectors to concentrate the Sun's rays in an absorber tube similar to parabolic trough plants. Since the concentration factor is less than in parabolic trough plants, the temperature of the

heat transfer fluid In fluid thermodynamics, a heat transfer fluid is a gas or liquid that takes part in heat transfer by serving as an intermediary in cooling on one side of a process, transporting and storing thermal energy, and heating on another side of a proc ...

is lower. This is why most plants use

saturated steam Steam is a substance containing water in the gas phase, and sometimes also an aerosol of liquid water droplets, or air. This may occur due to evaporation or due to boiling, where heat is applied until water reaches the enthalpy of vaporization ...

as the working fluid in both the solar field and the turbine. A 50 MW linear Fresnel power plant requires about 1,960 tracking motors. The power required for each motor is much lower than the parabolic trough plant. A 50 MW lineal Fresnel plant without storage will contain about 127 tonnes of copper. This translates to 2.6 tonnes of copper/MW, or in other terms, 1.3 tonnes of copper/GWh/year. Of this amount, 69,960 kg of copper are in cables from process area, solar field, earthing and lightning protection and controls. Another 57,300 kg of copper is in equipment (transformers, generators, motors, mirrors, pumps, fans).

Dish Stirling plants

These plants are an emerging technology that has potential as a solution for decentralized applications. The technology does not require water for cooling in the conversion cycle. These plants are non-dispatchable. Energy production ceases when clouds pass overhead. Research is being conducted on advanced storage and hybridization systems. The largest dish Sterling installation has a total power of 1.5 MW. Relatively more copper is needed in the solar field than other CSP technologies because electricity is actually generated there. Based on existing 1.5 MW plants, the copper content is 4 tonnes/MW, or, in other terms, 2.2 tonnes of copper/GWh/year. A 1.5 MW power plant has some 6,060 kg of copper in cables, induction generators, drives, field and grid transformers, earthing and lightning protection.

Solar water heaters (solar domestic hot water systems)

Solar water heaters can be a cost-effective way to generate hot water for homes. They can be used in any climate. The fuel they use, sunshine, is free.Solar water heaters; Energy Savers; Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy; U.S. Department of Energy; http://www.energysavers.gov/your_home/water_heating/index.cfm/mytopic=12850/ Solar hot water collectors are used by more than 200 million households as well as many public and commercial buildings worldwide. The total installed capacity of solar thermal heating and cooling units in 2010 was 185 GW-thermal.2011 global status report by Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century (REN21) Solar heating capacity increased by an estimated 27% in 2011 to reach approximately 232 GWth, excluding unglazed swimming pool heating. Most solar thermal is used for water heating, but solar space heating and cooling are gaining ground, particularly in Europe. There are two types of solar water heating systems: active, which have circulating pumps and controls, and passive, which don't. Passive solar techniques do not require working electrical or mechanical elements. They include the selection of materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Copper is an important component of solar thermal heating and cooling systems because of its high

heat conductivity The thermal conductivity of a material is a measure of its ability to conduct heat. It is commonly denoted by k, \lambda, or \kappa. Heat transfer occurs at a lower rate in materials of low thermal conductivity than in materials of high thermal ...

, resistance to atmospheric and water corrosion, sealing and joining by soldering, and mechanical strength. Copper is used both in receivers and primary circuits (pipes and heat exchangers for water tanks). For the absorber plate, aluminum is sometimes used as it is cheaper, yet when combined with copper piping, there may be problems in regards to allow the absorber plate to transfer its heat to the piping suitably. An alternative material that is currently used is PEX-AL-PEX but there may be similar problems with the heat transfer between the absorber plate and the pipes as well. One way around this is to simply use the same material for both the piping and the absorber plate. This material can be copper off course but also aluminum or PEX-AL-PEX. Three types of

solar thermal collector A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight. The term "solar collector" commonly refers to a device for solar hot water heating, but may refer to large power generating installations such as solar parabolic troughs and sola ...

s are used for residential applications: flat plate collectors, integral collector-storage, and solar thermal collector: Evacuated tube collectors; They can be direct circulation (i.e., heats water and brings it directly to the home for use) or indirect circulation (i.e., pumps heat a transfer fluid through a heat exchanger, which then heats water that flows into the home) systems. In an evacuated tube solar hot water heater with an indirect circulation system, evacuated tubes contain a glass outer tube and metal absorber tube attached to a fin. Solar thermal energy is absorbed within the evacuated tubes and is converted into usable concentrated heat. Copper heat pipes transfer thermal energy from within the solar tube into a copper header. A thermal transfer fluid (water or

glycol A diol is a chemical compound containing two hydroxyl groups ( groups). An Aliphatic compound, aliphatic diol is also called a glycol. This pairing of functional groups is pervasive, and many subcategories have been identified. The most common ...

mixture) is pumped through the copper header. As the solution circulates through the copper header, the temperature rises. The evacuated glass tubes have a double layer. The outer layer is fully transparent to allow solar energy to pass through unimpeded. The inner layer is treated with a selective

optical coating An optical coating is one or more thin layers of material deposited on an optical component such as a lens, prism or mirror, which alters the way in which the optic reflects and transmits light. These coatings have become a key technology in th ...

that absorbs energy without reflection. The inner and outer layers are fused at the end, leaving an empty space between the inner and outer layers. All air is pumped out of the space between the two layers (evacuation process), thereby creating the thermos effect which stops conductive and convective transfer of heat that might otherwise escape into the atmosphere. Heat loss is further reduced by the low-emissivity of the glass that is used. Inside the glass tube is the copper heat pipe. It is a sealed hollow copper tube that contains a small amount of proprietary liquid, which under low pressure boils at a very low temperature. Other components include a solar heat exchanger tank and a solar pumping station, with pumps and controllers.

Wind

In a

wind turbine A wind turbine is a device that converts the kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy. Hundreds of thousands of large turbines, in installations known as wind farms, now generate over 650 gigawatts of power, with 60 GW added each year. ...

, the wind's

kinetic energy In physics, the kinetic energy of an object is the energy that it possesses due to its motion. It is defined as the work needed to accelerate a body of a given mass from rest to its stated velocity. Having gained this energy during its accele ...

is converted into

mechanical energy In Outline of physical science, physical sciences, mechanical energy is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy. The principle of conservation of mechanical energy states that if an isolated system is subject only to conservative forces, t ...

to drive a

generator Generator may refer to: * Signal generator, electronic devices that generate repeating or non-repeating electronic signals * Electric generator, a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. * Generator (circuit theory), an eleme ...

, which in turn generates

electricity Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter that has a property of electric charge. Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as described ...

. The basic components of a wind power system consist of a tower with rotating blades containing an electricity generator and a transformer to step up voltage for electricity transmission to a substation on the grid. Cabling and electronics are also important components. The harsh environment

offshore wind Offshore wind power or offshore wind energy is the generation of electricity through wind farms in bodies of water, usually at sea. There are higher wind speeds offshore than on land, so offshore farms generate more electricity per amount of c ...

farms means that the individual components need to be more rugged and corrosion protected than their onshore components. Increasingly long connections to shore with subsea MV and HV cables are required at this time. The need for

corrosion protection Corrosion is a Erosion, natural process that converts a refined metal into a more chemically stable oxide. It is the gradual deterioration of materials (usually a metal) by chemical or electrochemical reaction with their environment. Corrosio ...

favors

copper nickel Cupronickel or copper-nickel (CuNi) is an alloy of copper that contains nickel and strengthening elements, such as iron and manganese. The copper content typically varies from 60 to 90 percent. (Monel is a nickel-copper alloy that contains a minimu ...

cladding as the preferred alloy for the towers. Copper is an important conductor in wind power generation.Wind energy basics – how copper helps make wind energy possible; http://www.copper.org/environment/green/casestudies/wind_energy/wind_energy.html Wind farms can contain several hundred-thousand feet of copper weighing between 4 million to 15 million pounds, mostly in wiring, cable, tubing, generators and step-up transformers.The Rise Of Solar: A Unique Opportunity For Copper; Solar Industry Magazine; April 2017; by Zolaika Strong; https://issues.solarindustrymag.com/article/rise-solar-unique-opportunity-copper Copper usage intensity is high because turbines in wind generation farms are spread over large areas.Growing renewable energy needs more copper; by Nic Sharpley; November 21, 2012; ''Windpower Engineering''; https://www.windpowerengineering.com/business-news-projects/uncategorized/growing-renewable-energy-needs-more-copper/ In land-based wind farms, copper intensity can range between 5,600 and 14,900 pounds per MW, depending on whether the step-up transformers have copper or aluminum conductors. In the off-shore environment, copper intensity is much higher: approximately 21,000 pounds per MW, which includes submarine cables to shore. In both onshore and offshore environments, additional copper cabling is used to connect wind farms to main electrical grids. The amount of copper used for wind energy systems in 2011 was estimated to be 120 kt. The cumulative amount of copper installed through 2011 was estimated to be 714 kt. , global production of wind turbines use 450,000 tonnes of copper per year. For wind farms with three-stage gearbox doubly fed 3 MW induction generators, approximately 2.7 t per MW is needed with standard wind turbines. For wind turbines with LV/MV transformers in the nacelle, 1.85 t per MW is needed.García-Olivares, Antonio, Joaquim Ballabrera-Poy, Emili García-Ladona, and Antonio Turiel. A global renewable mix with proven technologies and common materials, Energy Policy 41 (2012): 561-57, http://imedea.uib-csic.es/master/cambioglobal/Modulo_I_cod101601/Ballabrera_Diciembre_2011/Articulos/Garcia-Olivares.2011.pdf Copper is primarily used in coil windings in the

stator The stator is the stationary part of a rotary system, found in electric generators, electric motors, sirens, mud motors or biological rotors. Energy flows through a stator to or from the rotating component of the system. In an electric mot ...

and

rotor Rotor may refer to: Science and technology Engineering *Rotor (electric), the non-stationary part of an alternator or electric motor, operating with a stationary element so called the stator * Helicopter rotor, the rotary wing(s) of a rotorcraft ...

portions of generators (which convert mechanical energy into electrical energy), in

and

low voltage In electrical engineering, low voltage is a relative term, the definition varying by context. Different definitions are used in electric power transmission and distribution, compared with electronics design. electrical safety codes define "low vo ...

cable conductors including the vertical electrical cable that connects the

nacelle A nacelle ( ) is a "streamlined body, sized according to what it contains", such as an engine, fuel, or equipment on an aircraft. When attached by a pylon entirely outside the airframe, it is sometimes called a pod, in which case it is attached ...

to the base of the

, in the coils of transformers (which steps up low voltage AC to high voltage AC compatible with the grid), in

gearboxes Propulsion transmission is the mode of transmitting and controlling propulsion power of a machine. The term ''transmission'' properly refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft (for rear-wheel drive vehicles), differe ...

(which convert the slow revolutions per minute of the rotor blades to faster rpms) and in wind farm electrical grounding systems. Copper may also be used in the nacelle (the housing of the wind turbine that rests on the tower containing all the main components), auxiliary motors (motors used to rotate the nacelle as well as control the angle of the rotor blades), cooling circuits (cooling configuration for the entire

drive train A drivetrain (also frequently spelled as drive train or sometimes drive-train) is the group of components that deliver mechanical power from the prime mover to the driven components. In automotive engineering, the drivetrain is the components o ...

), and

(which enable the wind turbine systems to perform like a power plant). In the coils of wind generators, electric current suffers from losses that are proportional to the resistance of the wire that carries the current. This resistance, called

copper loss Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-or ...

es, causes energy to be lost by heating up the wire. In wind power systems, this resistance can be reduced with thicker copper wire and with a cooling system for the generator, if required.

Copper in generators

Either copper or aluminum conductors can be specified for generator cables. Copper has the higher electrical conductivity and therefore the higher electrical energy efficiency. It is also selected for its safety and reliability. The main consideration for specifying aluminum is its lower capital cost. Over time, this benefit is offset by higher energy losses over years of power transmission. Deciding which conductor to use is determined during a project's planning phase when utility teams discuss these matters with turbine and cable manufacturers. Regarding copper, its weight in a generator will vary according to the type of generator,

power rating In electrical engineering and mechanical engineering, the power rating of equipment is the highest power input allowed to flow through particular equipment. According to the particular discipline, the term ''power'' may refer to electrical or me ...

, and configuration. Its weight has an almost linear relationship to the power rating. Generators in direct-drive wind turbines usually contain more copper, as the generator itself is bigger due to the absence of a gearbox.Copper content assessment of wind turbines, Final Report V01, by Frost & Sullivan. Presented to ECI; July 12, 2010. Available at Leonardo Energy - Ask an Expert; A generator in a direct drive configuration could be 3.5 times to 6 times heavier than in a geared configuration, depending on the type of generator. Five different types of generator technologies are used in wind generation: # double-fed asynchronous generators (DFAG) # conventional asynchronous generators (CAG) # conventional synchronous generators (CSG) #

permanent magnet synchronous generator A permanent magnet synchronous generator is a generator where the excitation field is provided by a permanent magnet instead of a coil. The term synchronous refers here to the fact that the rotor and magnetic field rotate with the same speed, beca ...

s (PMSG) # high-temperature superconductor generators (HTSG) The amount of copper in each of these generator types is summarized here. Direct-drive configurations of the synchronous type machines usually contain the most copper, but some use aluminium. Conventional synchronous generators (CSG) direct-drive machines have the highest per-unit copper content. The share of CSGs will increase from 2009 to 2020, especially for direct drive machines. DFAGs accounted for the most unit sales in 2009. The variation in the copper content of CSG generators depends upon whether they are coupled with single-stage (heavier) or three-stage (lighter) gearboxes. Similarly, the difference in copper content in PMSG generators depends on whether the turbines are medium speed, which are heavier, or high-speed turbines, which are lighter. There is increasing demand for synchronous machines and direct-drive configurations. CSG direct and geared DFAGs will lead the demand for copper. The highest growth in demand is expected to be the direct PMSGs, which is forecast to account for 7.7% of the total demand for copper in wind power systems in 2015. However, since permanent magnets that contain the rare earth element neodymium may not be able to escalate globally, direct drive synchronous magnet (DDSM) designs may be more promising. The amount of copper required for a 3 MW DDSM generator is 12.6 t. Locations with high-speed turbulent winds are better suited for variable-speed wind turbine generators with full-scale power converters due to the greater reliability and availability they offer in such conditions. Of the variable-speed wind turbine options, PMSGs could be preferred over DFAGs in such locations. In conditions with low wind speed and turbulence, DFAGs could be preferred to PMSGs. Generally, PMSGs deal better with grid-related faults and they could eventually offer higher efficiency, reliability, and availability than geared counterparts. This could be achieved by reducing the number of mechanical components in their design. Currently, however, geared wind turbine generators have been more thoroughly field-tested and are less expensive due to the greater volumes produced. The current trend is for PMSG hybrid installations with a single-stage or two-stage gearbox. The most recent wind turbine generator by

Vestas Vestas Wind Systems A/S is a Danish manufacturer, seller, installer, and servicer of wind turbines that was founded in 1945. The company operates manufacturing plants in Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands, Taiwan, India, Italy, Romania, the Uni ...

is geared drive. The most recent wind turbine generator by

Siemens Siemens AG ( ) is a German multinational conglomerate corporation and the largest industrial manufacturing company in Europe headquartered in Munich with branch offices abroad. The principal divisions of the corporation are ''Industry'', '' ...

is a hybrid. Over the medium term, if the cost of power electronics continues to decrease, direct-drive PMSG are expected to become more attractive. High-temperature superconductors (HTSG) technology is currently under development. It is expected that these machines will be able to attain more power than other wind turbine generators. If the offshore market follows the trend of larger unit machines, offshore could be the most suitable niche for HTSGs.

Copper in other components

For a 2 MW turbine system, the following amounts of copper were estimated for components other than the generator: Cabling is the second largest copper-containing component after the generator. A wind tower system with the transformer next to the generator will have medium-voltage (MV) power cables running from the top to the bottom of the tower, then to a collection point for a number of wind towers and on to the grid substation, or direct to the substation. The tower assembly will incorporate wire harnesses and control/signal cables, while low-voltage (LV) power cables are required to power the working parts throughout the system. For a 2 MW wind turbine, the vertical cable could range from 1,000 to 1,500 kg of copper, depending upon its type. Copper is the dominant material in underground cables.

Copper in grounding systems

Copper is vital to the

electrical grounding In electrical engineering, ground or earth is a reference point in an electrical circuit from which voltages are measured, a common return path for electric current, or a direct physical connection to the Earth. Electrical circuits may be con ...

system for wind turbine farms. Grounding systems can either be all-copper (solid or stranded copper wires and copper bus bars) often with an American gauge rating of 4/0 but perhaps as large as 250 thousands of circular mils or copper-clad steel, a lower cost alternative. Turbine masts attract

lightning Lightning is a naturally occurring electrostatic discharge during which two electric charge, electrically charged regions, both in the atmosphere or with one on the land, ground, temporarily neutralize themselves, causing the instantaneous ...

strikes, so they require

lightning protection A lightning rod or lightning conductor (British English) is a metal rod mounted on a structure and intended to protect the structure from a lightning strike. If lightning hits the structure, it will preferentially strike the rod and be conducte ...

systems. When lightning strikes a turbine blade, current passes along the blade, through the blade hub in the

(

gearbox Propulsion transmission is the mode of transmitting and controlling propulsion power of a machine. The term ''transmission'' properly refers to the whole drivetrain, including clutch, gearbox, prop shaft (for rear-wheel drive vehicles), differe ...

/ generator enclosure) and down the mast to a grounding system. The blade incorporates a large cross-section copper conductor that runs along its length and allows current to pass along the blade without deleterious heating effects. The nacelle is protected by a lightning conductor, often copper. The grounding system, at the base of the mast, consists of a thick copper ring conductor bonded to the base or located within a meter of the base. The ring is attached to two diametrically opposed points on the mast base. Copper leads extend outward from the ring and connect to copper grounding electrodes. The grounding rings at turbines on wind farms are inter-connected, providing a networked system with an extremely small aggregate resistance. Solid

copper wire Copper has been used in electrical wiring since the invention of the electromagnet and the telegraph in the 1820s. The invention of the telephone in 1876 created further demand for copper wire as an electrical conductor. Copper is the electr ...

has been traditionally deployed for grounding and lightning equipment due to its excellent

electrical conductivity Electrical resistivity (also called specific electrical resistance or volume resistivity) is a fundamental property of a material that measures how strongly it resists electric current. A low resistivity indicates a material that readily allow ...

. However, manufacturers are moving towards less expensive bi-metal copper clad or aluminum grounding wires and cables. Copper-plating wire is being explored. Current disadvantages of copper plated wire include lower conductivity, size, weight, flexibility and current carrying capability.

Copper in other equipment

After generators and cable, minor amounts of copper are used in the remaining equipment. In yaw and pitch auxiliary motors, the

yaw drive The yaw drive is an important component of the horizontal axis wind turbines' yaw system. To ensure the wind turbine is producing the maximal amount of electric energy at all times, the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into the wind as t ...

uses a combination of

induction motors An induction motor or asynchronous motor is an AC electric motor in which the electric current in the rotor needed to produce torque is obtained by electromagnetic induction from the magnetic field of the stator winding. An induction motor c ...

and multi-stage planetary gearboxes with minor amounts of copper.

Power electronics Power electronics is the application of electronics to the control and conversion of electric power. The first high-power electronic devices were made using mercury-arc valves. In modern systems, the conversion is performed with semiconducto ...

have minimal amounts of copper compared to other equipment. As turbine capacities increase, converter ratings also increase from low voltage (<1 kV) to medium voltage (1–5 kV). Most wind turbines have full power converters, which have the same

as the

, except the DFAG that has a power converter that is 30% of the rating of the generator. Finally, minor amounts of copper are used in air/oil and water cooled circuits on gearboxes or generators. Class 5 copper power cabling is exclusively used from the generator through the loop and tower interior wall. This is due to its ability to withstand the stress from 15,000 torsion cycles for 20 years of service life.

Superconducting Superconductivity is a set of physical properties observed in certain materials where Electrical resistance and conductance, electrical resistance vanishes and magnetic field, magnetic flux fields are expelled from the material. Any material e ...

materials are being tested within and outside of wind turbines. They offer higher electrical efficiencies, the ability to carry higher currents, and lighter weights. These materials are, however, much more expensive than copper at this time.

Copper in offshore wind farms

The amount of copper in offshore wind farms increases with the distance to the coast. Copper usage in offshore wind turbines is on the order of 10.5 t per MW. The Borkum 2 offshore wind farm uses 5,800 t for a 400 MW, 200 kilometer connection to the external grid, or approximately 14.5 t of copper per MW. The

Horns Rev Offshore Wind Farm Horns Rev is an offshore wind farm in Danish waters in the North Sea. The wind farm was built in three phases, the first coming online in 2002, the second in 2009 and the third in 2019. Horns Rev 1, the first phase, was the first large-scale o ...

uses 8.75 tons of copper per MW to transmit 160 MW 21 kilometers to the grid.García-Olivares, Antonio, Joaquim Ballabrera-Poy, Emili García-Ladona, and Antonio Turiel. "A global renewable mix with proven technologies and common materials." Energy Policy 41 (2012): 561-574. http://imedea.uib-csic.es/master/cambioglobal/Modulo_I_cod101601/Ballabrera_Diciembre_2011/Articulos/Garcia-Olivares.2011.pdf

References

{{reflist, colwidth=30em Renewable energy Solar thermal energy Solar cells Wind power Copper