Constantine III (
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
: ''Flavius Claudius Constantinus'', died shortly before 18 September 411), was a
Roman
Roman or Romans most often refers to:
*Rome, the capital city of Italy
*Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD
*Roman people, the people of ancient Rome
*''Epistle to the Romans'', shortened to ''Romans'', a letter ...
general who declared himself
Western Roman Emperor in
Britannia
Britannia () is the national personification of Britain as a helmeted female warrior holding a trident and shield. An image first used in classical antiquity, the Latin ''Britannia'' was the name variously applied to the British Isles, Great ...
in 407 and established himself in
Gaul
Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
. He was co-emperor from 409 until 411.
Constantine rose to power during a bloody struggle in Roman Britain and was acclaimed emperor by the local legions in 407. He promptly moved to
Gaul
Gaul ( la, Gallia) was a region of Western Europe first described by the Romans. It was inhabited by Celtic and Aquitani tribes, encompassing present-day France, Belgium, Luxembourg, most of Switzerland, parts of Northern Italy (only during ...
, taking all of the mobile troops from Britain, to confront the various Germanic invaders who had
crossed the Rhine the previous winter. Constantine gained the upper hand after several battles with the forces of the
Western Roman Emperor Honorius. As a result, Honorius recognised Constantine as co-emperor in 409. The activities of the invading tribes, raids by Saxons on the near-defenseless Britain and desertions by some of his top commanders led to a collapse of support. After further military setbacks he abdicated in 411. He was captured and executed shortly afterwards.
Life
In 406, the provinces of
Roman Britain
Roman Britain was the period in classical antiquity when large parts of the island of Great Britain were under occupation by the Roman Empire. The occupation lasted from AD 43 to AD 410. During that time, the territory conquered was ...
revolted. The garrisons had not been paid and had determined to choose their own leader. Their first two choices,
Marcus and
Gratian
Gratian (; la, Gratianus; 18 April 359 – 25 August 383) was emperor of the Western Roman Empire from 367 to 383. The eldest son of Valentinian I, Gratian accompanied his father on several campaigns along the Rhine and Danube frontiers and wa ...
, did not meet their expectations and were killed. Fearful of a Germanic invasion and desperate for some sense of security in a world that seemed to be rapidly falling apart, the Roman military in Britain sought greater security in strong and able military leadership and chose as their leader a man named after the famed emperor of the early fourth century,
Constantine the Great
Constantine I ( , ; la, Flavius Valerius Constantinus, ; ; 27 February 22 May 337), also known as Constantine the Great, was Roman emperor from AD 306 to 337, the first one to Constantine the Great and Christianity, convert to Christiani ...
, who had himself risen to power through a military coup in Britain. Constantine was a common soldier, but one of some ability. Early in 407, they acclaimed him as emperor.
Constantine moved quickly. He crossed the
Channel
Channel, channels, channeling, etc., may refer to:
Geography
* Channel (geography), in physical geography, a landform consisting of the outline (banks) of the path of a narrow body of water.
Australia
* Channel Country, region of outback Austral ...
at
Bononia (Boulogne) and (historians have assumed) took with him all of the mobile troops left in Britain, thus denuding the province of any first line military protection and explaining the disappearance of the legions from Britannia in the early fifth century. The Roman forces in Gaul (modern France) declared for him, followed by most of those in Hispania (modern Spain). On 31 December 406 several tribes of
barbarian
A barbarian (or savage) is someone who is perceived to be either Civilization, uncivilized or primitive. The designation is usually applied as a generalization based on a popular stereotype; barbarians can be members of any nation judged by som ...
invaders, including the
Vandal
The Vandals were a Germanic people who first inhabited what is now southern Poland. They established Vandal kingdoms on the Iberian Peninsula, Mediterranean islands, and North Africa in the fifth century.
The Vandals migrated to the area betw ...
s, the
Burgundians
The Burgundians ( la, Burgundes, Burgundiōnes, Burgundī; on, Burgundar; ang, Burgendas; grc-gre, Βούργουνδοι) were an early Germanic tribe or group of tribes. They appeared in the middle Rhine region, near the Roman Empire, and ...
, the
Alans
The Alans (Latin: ''Alani'') were an ancient and medieval Iranian nomadic pastoral people of the North Caucasus – generally regarded as part of the Sarmatians, and possibly related to the Massagetae. Modern historians have connected the Al ...
and the
Sueves
The Suebi (or Suebians, also spelled Suevi, Suavi) were a large group of Germanic peoples originally from the Elbe river region in what is now Germany and the Czech Republic. In the early Roman era they included many peoples with their own names ...
had
crossed the Rhine, perhaps near
Mainz
Mainz () is the capital and largest city of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany.
Mainz is on the left bank of the Rhine, opposite to the place that the Main (river), Main joins the Rhine. Downstream of the confluence, the Rhine flows to the north-we ...
, and overrun the Roman defensive works in a successful invasion of the
Western Roman Empire
The Western Roman Empire comprised the western provinces of the Roman Empire at any time during which they were administered by a separate independent Imperial court; in particular, this term is used in historiography to describe the period fr ...
.
Constantine's forces won several confrontations with the Vandals and quickly secured the line of the Rhine. The sitting Western emperor,
Honorius, ordered
Stilicho
Flavius Stilicho (; c. 359 – 22 August 408) was a military commander in the Roman army who, for a time, became the most powerful man in the Western Roman Empire. He was of Vandal origins and married to Serena, the niece of emperor Theodosius ...
, his leading general, or ''
magister militum
(Latin for "master of soldiers", plural ) was a top-level military command used in the later Roman Empire, dating from the reign of Constantine the Great. The term referred to the senior military officer (equivalent to a war theatre commander, ...
'', to expel Constantine.
Sarus the Goth Sarus or Saurus (d. 413 AD) was a Goths, Gothic chieftain, known as a particularly brave and skillful warrior. He became a commander for the emperor Honorius (emperor), Honorius. He was known for his hostility to the prominent Gothic brothers-in-law ...
, a commander of Honorius, defeated two of Constantine's generals,
Iustinianus
Iustinianus (died 407 AD) was a Roman military commander who supported the usurper Constantine III.
Life
Iustinianus was an officer of the Western Roman army in Britain. In 407 the general Claudius Constantine ( Constantine III) rebelled again ...
and the
Frank
Frank or Franks may refer to:
People
* Frank (given name)
* Frank (surname)
* Franks (surname)
* Franks, a medieval Germanic people
* Frank, a term in the Muslim world for all western Europeans, particularly during the Crusades - see Farang
Curr ...
Nebiogastes Nebiogastes (Greek: Νεοβιγάστης or Νεβιγάστιος; died 407 AD) was a Roman military commander that supported the usurper Constantine III.
Life
Nebiogastes was an officer of the Western Roman army in Britain. In 407 the genera ...
, who were leading the vanguard of his forces. Constantine's lieutenant, Nebiogastes, was first trapped in, then killed outside,
Valence. Constantine sent another army headed by
Edobichus Edobichus ( el, {{lang, grc, Ἐδόβιχος or Ἐδόβιγχος ; died 411) was a general of the Roman usurper Constantine III. Although he was a native of Britain, according to Zosimus his ancestors were Franks.Zosimus, VI.2.4-5
Life
Aft ...
and
Gerontius Gerontius (; Latinized Greek for 'old man') can refer to:
Music and literature
* ''The Dream of Gerontius'', a 1900 choral work by Edward Elgar, a setting of a poem of the same name by John Henry Newman
* ''The Dream of Gerontius'', the poem by ...
, and Sarus retreated into
Italy
Italy ( it, Italia ), officially the Italian Republic, ) or the Republic of Italy, is a country in Southern Europe. It is located in the middle of the Mediterranean Sea, and its territory largely coincides with the homonymous geographical re ...
, needing to buy his passage through the
Alpine
Alpine may refer to any mountainous region. It may also refer to:
Places Europe
* Alps, a European mountain range
** Alpine states, which overlap with the European range
Australia
* Alpine, New South Wales, a Northern Village
* Alpine National Pa ...
passes from the brigand
Bagaudae
Bagaudae (also spelled bacaudae) were groups of peasant insurgents in the later Roman Empire who arose during the Crisis of the Third Century, and persisted until the very end of the Western Empire, particularly in the less-Romanised areas of Ga ...
, who controlled them. With these advances, Constantine controlled all of Gaul and garrisoned the Alpine passes into Italy. By May 408 he had made
Arles
Arles (, , ; oc, label= Provençal, Arle ; Classical la, Arelate) is a coastal city and commune in the South of France, a subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region, in the former province of ...
his capital, where he appointed
Apollinaris, the grandfather of
Sidonius Apollinaris
Gaius Sollius Modestus Apollinaris Sidonius, better known as Sidonius Apollinaris (5 November of an unknown year, 430 – 481/490 AD), was a poet, diplomat, and bishop. Sidonius is "the single most important surviving author from 5th-century Gaul ...
, as prefect.
Recognition as co-emperor
In the summer of 408, the Roman forces in Italy assembled to attack Constantine.
Hispania
Hispania ( la, Hispānia , ; nearly identically pronounced in Spanish, Portuguese, Catalan, and Italian) was the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula and its provinces. Under the Roman Republic, Hispania was divided into two provinces: Hispania ...
was a stronghold of the
House of Theodosius
The Theodosian dynasty was a Roman imperial family that produced five Roman emperors during Late Antiquity, reigning over the Roman Empire from 379 to 457. The dynasty's patriarch was Theodosius the Elder, whose son Theodosius the Great was made ...
and loyal to the ineffectual Honorius. Constantine feared that Honorius' cousins would organise an attack from that direction while troops under Sarus and Stilicho attacked him from Italy in a
pincer manoeuvre. He struck first at Hispania. He summoned his eldest son,
Constans
Flavius Julius Constans ( 323 – 350), sometimes called Constans I, was Roman emperor from 337 to 350. He held the imperial rank of ''caesar'' from 333, and was the youngest son of Constantine the Great.
After his father's death, he was made ...
, from the
monastery
A monastery is a building or complex of buildings comprising the domestic quarters and workplaces of monastics, monks or nuns, whether living in communities or alone (hermits). A monastery generally includes a place reserved for prayer which ...
where he was dwelling, elevated him to
Caesar
Gaius Julius Caesar (; ; 12 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC), was a Roman people, Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in Caes ...
, and sent him with the general Gerontius towards Hispania, where they defeated the cousins of Honorius with little difficulty; two
Didymus and
Verinianuswere captured, and two others –
Lagodius and
Theodosiolus – escaped, Lagodius to
Rome
, established_title = Founded
, established_date = 753 BC
, founder = King Romulus (legendary)
, image_map = Map of comune of Rome (metropolitan city of Capital Rome, region Lazio, Italy).svg
, map_caption ...
and Theodosiolus to
Constantinople
la, Constantinopolis ota, قسطنطينيه
, alternate_name = Byzantion (earlier Greek name), Nova Roma ("New Rome"), Miklagard/Miklagarth (Old Norse), Tsargrad ( Slavic), Qustantiniya (Arabic), Basileuousa ("Queen of Cities"), Megalopolis (" ...
.
[Gibbon, Ch. 30]
Constans left his wife and household at
Saragossa
Zaragoza, also known in English as Saragossa,''Encyclopædia Britannica'"Zaragoza (conventional Saragossa)" is the capital city of the Zaragoza Province and of the autonomous community of Aragon, Spain. It lies by the Ebro river and its tributari ...
under the care of Gerontius and returned to Arles to report to his father. Meanwhile, the loyalist Roman army mutinied at
Ticinum
Ticinum (the modern Pavia) was an ancient city of Gallia Transpadana, founded on the banks of the river of the same name (now the Ticino river) a little way above its confluence with the Padus ( Po).
It was said by Pliny the Elder to have been ...
(
Pavia
Pavia (, , , ; la, Ticinum; Medieval Latin: ) is a town and comune of south-western Lombardy in northern Italy, south of Milan on the lower Ticino river near its confluence with the Po. It has a population of c. 73,086. The city was the capit ...
) on 13 August, which was followed by the execution of Honorius' general Stilicho on 22 August.
Intrigue within the Imperial court caused the general Sarus and his men to abandon the western army. This left Honorius in
Ravenna
Ravenna ( , , also ; rgn, Ravèna) is the capital city of the Province of Ravenna, in the Emilia-Romagna region of Northern Italy. It was the capital city of the Western Roman Empire from 408 until its collapse in 476. It then served as the cap ...
without any significant military power, and facing a
Gothic
Gothic or Gothics may refer to:
People and languages
*Goths or Gothic people, the ethnonym of a group of East Germanic tribes
**Gothic language, an extinct East Germanic language spoken by the Goths
**Crimean Gothic, the Gothic language spoken b ...
army under
Alaric that roamed unchecked in northern Italy. So, when Constantine's envoys arrived to parley, the fearful Honorius recognised Constantine as co-emperor, and the two were joint
consuls
A consul is an official representative of the government of one state in the territory of another, normally acting to assist and protect the citizens of the consul's own country, as well as to facilitate trade and friendship between the people ...
for the year 409.
March on Italy
That year was Constantine's high-water mark. While he had been fighting Honorius' armies, some of the Vandal tribes had overrun Constantine's Rhine defenses and spent two years and eight months burning and plundering their way through Gaul. The tribes reached the
Pyrenees
The Pyrenees (; es, Pirineos ; french: Pyrénées ; ca, Pirineu ; eu, Pirinioak ; oc, Pirenèus ; an, Pirineus) is a mountain range straddling the border of France and Spain. It extends nearly from its union with the Cantabrian Mountains to C ...
, where they broke through Constantine's garrisons and entered Hispania. Constantine prepared to send his son Constans back to deal with this crisis when word came that his general Gerontius had rebelled, raising his relative,
Maximus of Hispania
Maximus was a Roman usurper (409 – 411) in Hispania (the Iberian Peninsula, modern Spain and Portugal). He had been elected by general Gerontius, who might have been his father.
Relations between the usurper Constantine III and his general Gero ...
, as co-emperor. Despite Constantine's best efforts, the feared attack from Hispania came the following year, when Gerontius advanced with the support of his barbarian allies.
At about the same time
Saxon
The Saxons ( la, Saxones, german: Sachsen, ang, Seaxan, osx, Sahson, nds, Sassen, nl, Saksen) were a group of Germanic
*
*
*
*
peoples whose name was given in the early Middle Ages to a large country (Old Saxony, la, Saxonia) near the Nor ...
pirate
Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and other valuable goods. Those who conduct acts of piracy are called pirates, v ...
s raided Britain, which Constantine had left defenceless. Distressed that Constantine had failed to defend them, the Roman inhabitants of Britain and
Armorica
Armorica or Aremorica (Gaulish: ; br, Arvorig, ) is the name given in ancient times to the part of Gaul between the Seine and the Loire that includes the Brittany Peninsula, extending inland to an indeterminate point and down the Atlantic Coast ...
(Brittany) rebelled and expelled his officials.
Constantine's response to this tightening circle of enemies was a final desperate gamble. Encouraged by the entreaties of officials of the western court, he marched on Italy with the troops left to him. They wanted to replace Honorius with a more capable ruler. Constantine, though, had insufficient forces and retreated into Gaul in the late spring of 410. Constantine's position became untenable; Gerontius defeated his forces at
Vienne
Vienne (; Poitevin-Saintongeais: ''Viéne'') is a landlocked department in the French region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. It takes its name from the river Vienne. It had a population of 438,435 in 2019.[Decimus Rusticus Decimus Rusticus (sometimes Rusticus Decimus) of Treves (then ''Augusta Treverorum'') and Lyon (''Lugdunum'') (c. 370 – before 423) was a Master of the Offices and the praetorian prefect of Gaul between 409 and 410 or 413. He was one of those ...]
, who had replaced Apollinaris a year earlier, abandoned Constantine to be caught up in the new rebellion of
Jovinus :''Jovinus is a Roman cognomen, most often used for a 5th-century Roman usurper emperor. This article is about the Roman usurper. For the saint, see Saint Jovinus. For the Frankish duke, see Jovinus of Provence.'' For the 4th century Roman general ...
in the
Rhineland
The Rhineland (german: Rheinland; french: Rhénanie; nl, Rijnland; ksh, Rhingland; Latinised name: ''Rhenania'') is a loosely defined area of Western Germany along the Rhine, chiefly its middle section.
Term
Historically, the Rhinelands ...
. Gerontius trapped Constantine inside Arles and besieged him.
Surrender and execution
At the same time, Honorius found a new general, the future
Constantius III
Constantius III was briefly Western Roman emperor of the West in 421. He earned his position as Emperor due to his capability as a general under Honorius, achieving the rank of ''magister militum'' by 411. That same year, he suppressed the r ...
. Constantius arrived at Arles while Gerontius was sieging Constantine and put Gerontius to flight. Gerontius committed suicide and many of his troops deserted to Constantius, who took over the siege of Constantine. Constantine held out, hoping for the return of Edobichus, who was raising troops in northern Gaul amongst the
Franks
The Franks ( la, Franci or ) were a group of Germanic peoples whose name was first mentioned in 3rd-century Roman sources, and associated with tribes between the Lower Rhine and the Ems River, on the edge of the Roman Empire.H. Schutz: Tools, ...
. But on his arrival Edobichus was defeated in an ambush. Constantine, his hopes fading after his troops guarding the Rhine abandoned him to support
Jovinus :''Jovinus is a Roman cognomen, most often used for a 5th-century Roman usurper emperor. This article is about the Roman usurper. For the saint, see Saint Jovinus. For the Frankish duke, see Jovinus of Provence.'' For the 4th century Roman general ...
, surrendered to Constantius. Despite the promise of safe passage, and Constantine's assumption of clerical office, Constantius imprisoned the former soldier and had him beheaded in either August or September 411. His head was mounted on a pole and presented to Emperor Honorius on 18 September. It was later displayed outside
Carthage
Carthage was the capital city of Ancient Carthage, on the eastern side of the Lake of Tunis in what is now Tunisia. Carthage was one of the most important trading hubs of the Ancient Mediterranean and one of the most affluent cities of the classi ...
.
Constantius fled the revolt of
Jovinus :''Jovinus is a Roman cognomen, most often used for a 5th-century Roman usurper emperor. This article is about the Roman usurper. For the saint, see Saint Jovinus. For the Frankish duke, see Jovinus of Provence.'' For the 4th century Roman general ...
, but
Athaulf
Athaulf (also ''Athavulf'', ''Atawulf'', or ''Ataulf'' and ''Adolf'', Latinized as ''Ataulphus'') ( 37015 August 415) was king of the Visigoths from 411 to 415. During his reign, he transformed the Visigothic state from a tribal kingdom to a maj ...
the
Visigoth
The Visigoths (; la, Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, Wisi) were an early Germanic people who, along with the Ostrogoths, constituted the two major political entities of the Goths within the Roman Empire in late antiquity, or what is kno ...
later suppressed the revolt. Roman rule never returned to Britain after the death of Constantine III. As the historian
Procopius
Procopius of Caesarea ( grc-gre, Προκόπιος ὁ Καισαρεύς ''Prokópios ho Kaisareús''; la, Procopius Caesariensis; – after 565) was a prominent late antique Greek scholar from Caesarea Maritima. Accompanying the Roman gener ...
later explained, "from that time onwards it remained under
he ruleof tyrants."
Legend
Constantine III is also known as Constantine II of Britain. He bears some relation to the
Constantine
Constantine most often refers to:
* Constantine the Great, Roman emperor from 306 to 337, also known as Constantine I
*Constantine, Algeria, a city in Algeria
Constantine may also refer to:
People
* Constantine (name), a masculine given name ...
found in
Geoffrey of Monmouth
Geoffrey of Monmouth ( la, Galfridus Monemutensis, Galfridus Arturus, cy, Gruffudd ap Arthur, Sieffre o Fynwy; 1095 – 1155) was a British cleric from Monmouth, Wales and one of the major figures in the development of British historiograph ...
's highly popular and imaginative ''
Historia Regum Britanniae
''Historia regum Britanniae'' (''The History of the Kings of Britain''), originally called ''De gestis Britonum'' (''On the Deeds of the Britons''), is a pseudohistorical account of British history, written around 1136 by Geoffrey of Monmouth. I ...
'', who comes to power following
Gracianus Municeps
Gracianus Municeps was a legendary King of the Britons, according to Geoffrey of Monmouth's ''Historia regum Britanniae'' (Latin: ''History of the Kings of Britain''), a largely fictional account of British history. After the death of Roman Emperor ...
' reign. In Geoffrey's account, the Britons ask , the ruler of Armorica, to be their ruler after the Roman withdrawal, seeking a king who can defend them against the barbarians. Aldroenus refuses, believing the country to have diminished, but sends his brother Constantine to rule instead. Constantine becomes king and has three sons, Constans,
Aurelius
The gens Aurelia was a plebeian family at ancient Rome, which flourished from the third century BC to the latest period of the Empire. The first of the Aurelian gens to obtain the consulship was Gaius Aurelius Cotta in 252 BC. From then to ...
and
Uther
Uther Pendragon (Brittonic) (; cy, Ythyr Ben Dragwn, Uthyr Pendragon, Uthyr Bendragon), also known as King Uther, was a legendary King of the Britons in sub-Roman Britain (c. 6th century). Uther was also the father of King Arthur.
A few mi ...
, but is stabbed to death by a
Pict
The Picts were a group of peoples who lived in what is now northern and eastern Scotland (north of the Firth of Forth) during Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. Where they lived and what their culture was like can be inferred from ear ...
.
The Constantine described in Geoffrey's account is loosely based on Constantine III, though he gives him a different family background. Geoffrey's Constantine is the brother of Aldroenus, both of whom were the descendants of
Conan Meriadoc
Conan Meriadoc (; Welsh: Cynan Meriadog; Breton: Konan Meriadeg) is a legendary Celtic leader credited with founding Brittany. Versions of his story circulated in both Brittany and Great Britain from at least the early 12th century, and supplant ...
. It is Geoffrey's Constantine who, through his son
Uther Pendragon
Uther Pendragon (Brittonic) (; cy, Ythyr Ben Dragwn, Uthyr Pendragon, Uthyr Bendragon), also known as King Uther, was a legendary King of the Britons in sub-Roman Britain (c. 6th century). Uther was also the father of King Arthur.
A few m ...
, becomes the grandfather of the legendary King Arthur. Some other sources explicitly state that Constantine III is the grandfather of Arthur. Notably, the
Welsh Triad
The Welsh Triads ( cy, Trioedd Ynys Prydein, "Triads of the Island of Britain") are a group of related texts in medieval manuscripts which preserve fragments of Welsh folklore, mythology and traditional history in groups of three. The triad is a ...
51 describes Arthur's grandfather to be "Custennin the Blessed", and goes on to say that "Bran son of Dyfnwal and Custennin son of Elen had been emperors in Rome".
He is one of three would-be Emperors described in
Alfred Duggan's historic novel ''
The Little Emperors
''The Little Emperors'' is a 1951 historical novel by the English author Alfred Duggan. The novel follows the speculative exploits of Caius Felix in the Roman-British province of Britannia Prima.
Plot synopsis
The story is set in Britain in 40 ...
''.
See also
*
End of Roman rule in Britain
The end of Roman rule in Britain was the transition from Roman Britain to post-Roman Britain. Roman rule ended in different parts of Britain at different times, and under different circumstances.
In 383, the usurper Magnus Maximus withdrew tr ...
Notes, citations and sources
Notes
Citations
Sources
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Constantine 03 (Western Roman Emperor)
4th-century births
411 deaths
5th-century Roman usurpers
5th-century murdered monarchs
5th-century Roman consuls
Imperial Roman consuls
Ancient Roman generals
Ancient Romans in Britain
Constantine II of Britain
British traditional history
Claudii
Flavii
People executed by the Roman Empire
Executed Roman emperors
People executed by decapitation