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The ''conductus'' (plural: ''conducti'') was a sacred Latin song in the Middle Ages, one whose poetry and music were newly composed. It is non-liturgical since its Latin lyric borrows little from previous chants. The conductus was northern French equivalent of the ''versus'', which flourished in Aquitaine. It was originally found in the twelfth-century Aquitanian repertories. But major collections of conductus were preserved in Paris. The conductus typically includes one, two, or three voices. A small number of the conductus are for four voices. Stylistically, the conductus is a type of
discant A descant, discant, or is any of several different things in music, depending on the period in question; etymologically, the word means a voice (''cantus'') above or removed from others. The Harvard Dictionary of Music states: A descant is a ...
(i.e. note-against-note polyphony). Its form can be strophic or through-composed form. The genre flourished from the early twelfth century to the middle of thirteenth century. It was one of the principal types of vocal composition of the
ars antiqua ''Ars antiqua'', also called ''ars veterum'' or ''ars vetus'', is a term used by modern scholars to refer to the Medieval music of Europe during the High Middle Ages, between approximately 1170 and 1310. This covers the period of the Notre-Dam ...
period of medieval
music history Music history, sometimes called historical musicology, is a highly diverse subfield of the broader discipline of musicology that studies music from a historical point of view. In theory, "music history" could refer to the study of the history o ...
.


History


Origins of the name

The conductus was most likely sung while the lectionary was carried from its place of safekeeping to the place from which it was to be read. But the origins of the term "conductus" remain obscure. The noun is derived from the verb ''conducere'', which can mean to lead, guide, or escort. Thus according to one hypothesis, the genre was called “conductus” because it served to accompany a procession. For example, according to the record of manuscript in the Institución Colombina, Seville, the conductus ''Salve festa dies'' was used for the same role of procession as the ancient hymn. The hymn with the same name was sung during the procession to the altar. But ''conducere'' can also mean “to bring together” or “join together.” Thus according to another hypothesis, the genre was called “conductus” because it brings
sequence In mathematics, a sequence is an enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed and order matters. Like a set, it contains members (also called ''elements'', or ''terms''). The number of elements (possibly infinite) is calle ...
or
hymn A hymn is a type of song, and partially synonymous with devotional song, specifically written for the purpose of adoration or prayer, and typically addressed to a deity or deities, or to a prominent figure or personification. The word ''hymn'' ...
together. The conductus is based on a condensed version of a sequence or hymn. For instance, the conductus ''Orienti oriens'' is derived from the sequence ''Noster cetus iste letus''.


Development

The genre of the conductus most likely originated in the south of
France France (), officially the French Republic ( ), is a country primarily located in Western Europe. It also comprises of Overseas France, overseas regions and territories in the Americas and the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic, Pacific Ocean, Pac ...
around 1150 and reached its peak development during the activity of the
Notre Dame School The Notre-Dame school or the Notre-Dame school of polyphony refers to the group of composers working at or near the Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris from about 1160 to 1250, along with the music they produced. The only composers whose names hav ...
in the early thirteenth century. The conductus is the northern counterpart of the versus. In some sources, the versus and conductus can be interchangeably used, since both of them are strophic and accentual Latin poems. However, the conductus might be different from Aquitanian versus due to its inclusion of a ''caudae'' at the end. The melismatic flourish (''caudae'') in the conductus can separate the text out and disrupt the overall structure while Aquitanian melismas keeps the flow going. Much of the surviving repertoire is contained in the Florence Manuscript and also the manuscript Wolfenbüttel 1099. In early documents, the conductus was often called “Benedicamus trope” or “benedictio.” The early conducti are simple and free from the section of melismatic flourishes known as ''caudae''. ''Caudae'' appear more often in conducti composed after 1200. Most conducti in the large thirteenthh-century manuscript collections from Notre Dame are for two or three voices.


Authorship

Many but not all conducti are anonymous. Some are attributed to some well-known poets and musicians of the time, such as
Philip the Chancellor Philippe le Chancelier, also known as "Philippus Cancellarius Parisiensis" (Philip, Chancellor of Paris) (''c'' 1160–December 26, 1236) was a French theologian, Latin lyric poet, and possibly a composer as well. He was the illegitimate son of Phi ...
,
Walter of Châtillon Walter of Châtillon (Latinisation of names, Latinized as Gualterus de Castellione) was a 12th-century France, French writer and theology, theologian who wrote in the Latin, Latin language. He studied under Stephen of Beauvais and at the University ...
,
Bernard of Clairvaux Bernard of Clairvaux, O. Cist. ( la, Bernardus Claraevallensis; 109020 August 1153), venerated as Saint Bernard, was an abbot, mystic, co-founder of the Knights Templars, and a major leader in the reformation of the Benedictine Order through ...
, Peter of Blois, and Perotinus. For instance, the text of the conductus ''Beata viscera'' was written by Philip the Chacellor and its music was attributed to Perotinus. Common subjects of the poems are the lives of the saints, feasts of the Lord, the Nativity, as well as more current subjects such as exemplary behavior of contemporary witnesses to the faith, such as
Thomas Becket Thomas Becket (), also known as Saint Thomas of Canterbury, Thomas of London and later Thomas à Becket (21 December 1119 or 1120 – 29 December 1170), was an English nobleman who served as Lord Chancellor from 1155 to 1162, and then ...
. Some conducti from later period consist of songs which criticize abuses by the clergy, including some that are quite outraged. Other conducti refer to significant historical events. Philip the Chancellor’s composition, ''Aurelianis civitas'' is associated with a student riot of 1200 in a French city, Orléans. In the poem, Philip lamented the conflict and its fatal consequences.


Musical Characteristics


Number of Voices

The conductus can include either one voice or multiple voices, known as
monophonic Monaural or monophonic sound reproduction (often shortened to mono) is sound intended to be heard as if it were emanating from one position. This contrasts with stereophonic sound or ''stereo'', which uses two separate audio channels to reproduc ...
and
polyphonic Polyphony ( ) is a type of musical texture consisting of two or more simultaneous lines of independent melody, as opposed to a musical texture with just one voice, monophony, or a texture with one dominant melodic voice accompanied by chords, h ...
compositions. The surviving repertories indicates the monophonic conducti are about double sizes of the polyphony type. But it was the polyphonic conductus that become one of principal musical genres in Parisian polyphony. Some melodies form monophonic compositions provide the basis for the multiple-voice writing.


Form

The composition can be either in strophic or through-composed form. Unlike the
motet In Western classical music, a motet is mainly a vocal musical composition, of highly diverse form and style, from high medieval music to the present. The motet was one of the pre-eminent polyphonic forms of Renaissance music. According to Margar ...
, the conductus is not “based on pre-existing material.” The composer invented the overall structure. In strophic form, the structure of each stanza is the same. In through-composed form, each stanza does not repeat. The strophic composition is typical in the earlier works. The through-composed composition came after 1200.


Style and declamation

In the conductus, the voices sang together in a style known as discant. Stylistically, it was different from the other principal liturgical
polyphonic Polyphony ( ) is a type of musical texture consisting of two or more simultaneous lines of independent melody, as opposed to a musical texture with just one voice, monophony, or a texture with one dominant melodic voice accompanied by chords, h ...
style of the time,
organum ''Organum'' () is, in general, a plainchant melody with at least one added voice to enhance the harmony, developed in the Middle Ages. Depending on the mode and form of the chant, a supporting bass line (or '' bourdon'') may be sung on the sam ...
, in which the voices usually moved at different speeds. The text declamation of the conductus can be either
syllabic Syllabic may refer to: *Syllable, a unit of speech sound, considered the building block of words **Syllabic consonant, a consonant that forms the nucleus of a syllable *Syllabary, writing system using symbols for syllables *Abugida, writing system ...
/
neumatic A neume (; sometimes spelled neum) is the basic element of Western and Eastern systems of musical notation prior to the invention of five-line staff notation. The earliest neumes were inflective marks that indicated the general shape but not n ...
or melismatic. The syllabic/neumatic type is coined the term ''musica cum littera.'' Monophonic pieces are mostly syllabic. The latter is called ''musica sine littera.'' The melismatic declamation can be applied to the ''caudae'' or the entire piece. The medieval theorist, Franco de Cologne refers to the conductus as discant. He advocated writing a beautiful melody in the tenor. ''Discantus positio vulgaris,'' one of the earliest conductus sources, mentions “conducts as a species of discantus.”


Rhythm

The conductus is non-metrical, which means it is not sung in a strict rhythmic pattern. The German editor,
Guido Maria Dreves Guido Maria Dreves (27 October 1854 – 1 June 1909) was a German Jesuit, hymnologist and hymnwriter. He was the son of the notary and poet Lebrecht Blücher Dreves. Life Dreves was born in Hamburg. He already had contact with Jesuits at sch ...
, who compiled the conductus poem, suggests that each syllable is more likely to be sung in the same value. When the
mensural notation Mensural notation is the musical notation system used for European vocal polyphonic music from the later part of the 13th century until about 1600. The term "mensural" refers to the ability of this system to describe precisely measured rhythm ...
later took over the unmeasured notation in the conductus, the conductus rhythm has changed. The Metz fragment shows the recopying of conductus in
mensural notation Mensural notation is the musical notation system used for European vocal polyphonic music from the later part of the 13th century until about 1600. The term "mensural" refers to the ability of this system to describe precisely measured rhythm ...
occurred between 1260 and 1300. Thus, the conductus rhythm was later expressed by the
rhythmic mode In medieval music, the rhythmic modes were set patterns of long and short durations (or rhythms). The value of each note is not determined by the form of the written note (as is the case with more recent European musical notation), but rather by ...
s.


Performance

In the documented liturgical use, the conductus was most likely a substitute for the versicle of “Benedicamus domino,” which was performed at the end of
Mass Mass is an intrinsic property of a body. It was traditionally believed to be related to the quantity of matter in a physical body, until the discovery of the atom and particle physics. It was found that different atoms and different elementar ...
or the Office. “The performance of conducti is associated with the introduction of a reading within the liturgy.” It serves as a cue for the following part of the ceremony. For the non-liturgical use, the conductus was sung during “the public readings in the chapter house and monastic
refectory A refectory (also frater, frater house, fratery) is a dining room, especially in monasteries, boarding schools and academic institutions. One of the places the term is most often used today is in graduate seminaries. The name derives from the La ...
.” Medieval singers improvised the
refrain A refrain (from Vulgar Latin ''refringere'', "to repeat", and later from Old French ''refraindre'') is the line or lines that are repeated in music or in poetry — the "chorus" of a song. Poetic fixed forms that feature refrains include the vi ...
s of the conductus. The refrains serve as a visual cueing for the repetition of music and text. By changing the lyrics and rhythmic delivery of the refrains, singers can add improvisatory meaning to the conductus. Other improvisation includes creating new correspondence between music and text or changing the duration of each syllable. The conductus repertory with larger numbers of stanzas require singer’s improvisatory skill.


Reception history

The conductus flourished from the early twelfth century to the middle of thirteenth century. It was prominent in the thirteenth Parisian polyphony. Around 1300, the conductus became less popular. Early fourteenth century theorist Jacques of Liège, a vigorous defender of the ''
ars antiqua ''Ars antiqua'', also called ''ars veterum'' or ''ars vetus'', is a term used by modern scholars to refer to the Medieval music of Europe during the High Middle Ages, between approximately 1170 and 1310. This covers the period of the Notre-Dam ...
'' style against the new "immoral and lascivious" '' ars nova'' style, lamented the disinterest of contemporary composers in the conductus. The conductus lasted longest in
Germany Germany,, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It is the second most populous country in Europe after Russia, and the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany is situated betwe ...
, where it was documented into the fourteenth century. English conductus of the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries often use the technique of
rondellus In music rondellus is the formalized voice exchange, interchange of Part (music), parts or register (music), voices according to a scheme, often used in English conducti and frequently in English motets of the late thirteenth and early fourteenth ...
.


References by medieval authors

Johannes de Garlandia (ca. 1250) states that “The conductus is to be known that these figures are placed sometimes without text, sometimes with text; sine littera, as in caudae or in conducti, cum littera as in motets......It is seen in conducti or motets applied without text or with text, if they are properly notated.” Franco of Cologne (ca.1280) was the first to define conductus as a type of discant: “Cum littera et sine fit discant us in conductis.” “Both the tenor and the polyphonic superstructure must be invented by the composer.”
Anonymous IV Anonymous may refer to: * Anonymity, the state of an individual's identity, or personally identifiable information, being publicly unknown ** Anonymous work, a work of art or literature that has an unnamed or unknown creator or author * Anony ...
(ca. 1275) gives a few comments on polyphonic conducti in his treatise. Observing from Perotinus’s conducti, he finds that the conductus contained both monophonic and polyphonic pieces with or without ''caudae''. He also highlights that “all voices of conducti are customarily notated on five-line staves rather than on four-line staves as Gregorian chants.” Lambertus (ca. 1278) associates the ''caudae'' of conducti with melismatic style. He states “hujusmodi figure aliquando ponuntur cum littera, aliquando sine. Cum littera vero, ut in motellis et similibus, sine littera, ut in neumatibus conductorum et similia.” ometimes used for such figures and letters, sometimes without. When the letter to the motellis and the like, without a letter to the neumas the entrepreneurs and the like Walter Odington (ca.1300) describes conductus as “several suitable melodies brought together.” He defines, “Conducti are composed of a number of suitable melodies, known or invented, and in various modes and with phrases repeated at the same pitch n the same modeor others….”
Johannes de Grocheio Johannes de Grocheio (or Grocheo) (Ecclesiastical Latin: ɔˈan.nɛs dɛ ɡrɔˈkɛj.jɔ c. 1255 – c. 1320) was a Parisian musical theorist of the early 14th century. His French name was Jean de Grouchy, but he is best known by his Latinized n ...
(ca. 1300) follows Franco’s definition and reiterates that the tenor of the conductus is newly invented: “Cantus corona tubs ab aliquibus simplex conductus dictus est…….ex omnibus longis et perfectis efficitur.” he ''cantus corona tubs'' is said by some to be a simple conductus


Selected discography

* Hyperion Conductus Project (3 CDs), John Potter,
Southampton University , mottoeng = The Heights Yield to Endeavour , type = Public research university , established = 1862 – Hartley Institution1902 – Hartley University College1913 – Southampton University Coll ...
John Potter – Conductus
/ref>


References


Further reading

* ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', ed. Stanley Sadie. 20 vol. London, Macmillan Publishers Ltd., 1980. * Richard H. Hoppin, ''Medieval Music''. New York, W.W. Norton & Co., 1978. * Ronald E. Voogt. "Repetition and Structure in the Three- and Four-Part Conductus of the Notre-Dame School". PhD diss. Columbus: Ohio State University, 1982.
''Cantum pulcriorem invenire'' Catalogue
directed by
Mark Everist Mark Everist (born 27 December 1956) is a British music historian, critic and musicologist. Early life and career Born in London, Everist was educated at Clifton College (Bristol) and studied at Dartington College of Arts (BA 1979), King's Co ...

University of Southampton
{{Authority control Medieval music genres Ars antiqua Christian music