In
grammar
In linguistics, the grammar of a natural language is its set of structure, structural constraints on speakers' or writers' composition of clause (linguistics), clauses, phrases, and words. The term can also refer to the study of such constraint ...
, sentence and clause structure, commonly known as sentence composition, is the classification of
sentences
''The Four Books of Sentences'' (''Libri Quattuor Sententiarum'') is a book of theology written by Peter Lombard in the 12th century. It is a systematic compilation of theology, written around 1150; it derives its name from the '' sententiae'' ...
based on the number and kind of
clause
In language, a clause is a constituent that comprises a semantic predicand (expressed or not) and a semantic predicate. A typical clause consists of a subject and a syntactic predicate, the latter typically a verb phrase composed of a verb with ...
s in their
syntactic structure. Such division is an element of
traditional grammar
Traditional grammar (also known as classical grammar) is a framework for the description of the structure of a language. The roots of traditional grammar are in the work of classical Greek and Latin philologists. The formal study of grammar based ...
.
Typology of clauses
In standard English, sentences are composed of five ''clause'' patterns :
# Subject + Verb (intransitive)
''Example:'' She runs.
# Subject + Verb (transitive) + Object
''Example:'' She runs the meeting.
# Subject + Verb (linking) + Subject Complement (adjective, noun, pronoun)
''Example:'' Abdul is happy. Jeanne is a person. I am her.
# Subject + Verb (transitive) + Indirect Object + Direct Object
''Example:'' She made me a pie.
This clause pattern is a derivative of S+V+O, transforming the object of a preposition into an indirect object of the verb, as the example sentence in transformational grammar is actually "She made a pie for me".
# Subject + Verb (transitive) + Object + Object Complement
''Example:'' They made him happy.
They did not make "him", and they did not make "happy"; they made "him happy"—the object and its complement form a syntactical unit.
Sentences – which are composed of these clauses, in either "dependent" or "independent" form – also have patterns, as explained below.
Typology of sentences
A ''simple sentence'' consists of only one clause. A ''compound sentence'' consists of two or more
independent clause
An independent clause (or main clause) is a clause that can stand by itself as a ''simple sentence''. An independent clause contains a subject and a predicate and makes sense by itself.
Independent clauses can be joined by using a semicolon or ...
s. A ''complex sentence'' has at least one independent clause plus at least one
dependent clause
A subordinate clause, dependent clause, subclause, or embedded clause is a clause that is embedded within a complex sentence. For instance, in the English sentence "I know that Bette is a dolphin", the clause "that Bette is a dolphin" occurs as t ...
.
A set of words with no independent clause may be an ''incomplete sentence'', also called a ''sentence fragment''.
A sentence consisting of at least one dependent clause and at least two independent clauses may be called a ''complex-compound sentence'' or ''compound-complex sentence''.
Sentence 1 is an example of a simple sentence. Sentence 2 is compound because "so" is considered a coordinating conjunction in English, and sentence 3 is complex. Sentence 4 is compound-complex (also known as complex-compound). Example 5 is a sentence fragment.
#''I like trains.''
#''I don't know how to bake, so I buy my bread already made.''
#''I enjoyed the apple pie that you bought for me.''
#''The dog lived in the garden, but the cat, who was smarter, lived inside the house.''
#''What an idiot.''
The simple sentence in example 1 contains one clause. Example 2 has two clauses (''I don't know how to bake'' and ''I buy my bread already made''), combined into a single sentence with the
coordinating conjunction
In grammar, a conjunction (abbreviated or ) is a part of speech that connects words, phrases, or clauses that are called the conjuncts of the conjunctions. That definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech and so what constitutes a ...
''so''. In example 3, ''I enjoyed the apple pie'' is an independent clause, and ''that you bought for me'' is a dependent clause; the sentence is thus complex. In sentence 4, ''The dog lived in the garden'' and ''the cat lived inside the house'' are both independent clauses; ''who was smarter'' is a dependent clause. Example 5 features a noun phrase but no verb. It is not a grammatically complete clause.
Simple sentences
A simple sentence structure contains one
independent clause
An independent clause (or main clause) is a clause that can stand by itself as a ''simple sentence''. An independent clause contains a subject and a predicate and makes sense by itself.
Independent clauses can be joined by using a semicolon or ...
and no
dependent clause
A subordinate clause, dependent clause, subclause, or embedded clause is a clause that is embedded within a complex sentence. For instance, in the English sentence "I know that Bette is a dolphin", the clause "that Bette is a dolphin" occurs as t ...
s.
*''I run.''
This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one
subject, ''I'', and one
verb
A verb () is a word (part of speech) that in syntax generally conveys an action (''bring'', ''read'', ''walk'', ''run'', ''learn''), an occurrence (''happen'', ''become''), or a state of being (''be'', ''exist'', ''stand''). In the usual descri ...
, ''run''.
*''The girl ran into her bedroom.''
This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, ''girl'', and one predicate, ''ran into her bedroom''. The predicate is a
verb phrase
In linguistics, a verb phrase (VP) is a syntactic unit composed of a verb and its arguments except the subject of an independent clause or coordinate clause. Thus, in the sentence ''A fat man quickly put the money into the box'', the words ''quic ...
that consists of more than one word.
*''In the backyard, the dog barked and howled at the cat.''
This simple sentence has one independent clause which contains one subject, ''dog'', and one predicate, ''barked and howled at the cat''. This predicate has two verbs, known as a compound predicate: ''barked'' and ''howled''. (This should not be confused with a compound sentence.) ''In the backyard'' and ''at the cat'' are
prepositional phrase
An adpositional phrase, in linguistics, is a syntactic category that includes ''prepositional phrases'', ''postpositional phrases'', and ''circumpositional phrases''. Adpositional phrases contain an adposition (preposition, postposition, or circ ...
s.
Compound sentences
In the English language, a compound sentence is composed of at least two independent clauses. It does not require a dependent clause. The clauses are joined by a ''coordinating'' conjunction, a semicolon that functions as a conjunction, a colon instead of a semicolon between two sentences when the second sentence explains or illustrates the first sentence and no coordinating conjunction is being used to connect the sentences, or a conjunctive adverb preceded by a semicolon. A conjunction can be used to make a compound sentence. Conjunctions are words such as ''for'', ''and'', ''nor'', ''but'', ''or'', ''yet'', and ''so''. Examples:
* I started on time, but I arrived late.
* I will accept your offer or decline it; these are the two options.
* The law was passed: from April 1, all cars would have to be tested.
* The war was lost; consequently, the whole country was occupied.
The use of a comma to separate two independent clauses without the addition of an appropriate conjunction is called a
comma splice
In written English usage, a comma splice or comma fault is the use of a comma to join two independent clauses. For example:
The comma splice is sometimes used in literary writing to convey a particular mood of informality. In the United States i ...
and is generally considered an error (when used in the English language).
Example:
* The sun was shining, everyone appeared happy.
If a sentence contains ''homogenous'' members referring to another common member of the sentence, the sentence may be considered either simple or compound. If the homogenous members are removed, then the sentence is called ''contracted''. In some languages, like Russian, a comma is not always required in a sentence with homogenous members.
* Alex likes to fish, and he is going fishing on Friday – Alex likes to fish, and is going fishing on Friday.
* Алекс любит ловить рыбу, и он пойдет на рыбалку в пятницу – Алекс любит ловить рыбу и пойдет на рыбалку в пятницу. (Russian)
Complex and compound-complex sentences
A complex sentence has one or more dependent clauses (also called subordinate clauses). Since a dependent clause cannot stand on its own as a sentence, complex sentences must also have at least one independent clause. In short, a sentence with one or more dependent clauses and at least one independent clause is a complex sentence. A sentence with two or more independent clauses plus one or more dependent clauses is called compound-complex or complex-compound.
In addition to a subject and a verb, dependent clauses contain a
subordinating conjunction
In grammar, a conjunction (abbreviated or ) is a part of speech that connects words, phrases, or clauses that are called the conjuncts of the conjunctions. That definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech and so what constitutes a ...
or similar word. There are a large number of subordinating conjunctions in English. Some of these give the clause an
adverb An adverb is a word or an expression that generally modifies a verb, adjective, another adverb, determiner, clause, preposition, or sentence. Adverbs typically express manner, place, time, frequency, degree, level of certainty, etc., answering ...
ial function, specifying time, place, or manner. Such clauses are called
adverbial clause
An adverbial clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adverb. That is, the entire clause modifies a separate element within a sentence. As with all clauses, it contains a subject and predicate, though the subject as well as the (predicat ...
s.
*''When I stepped out into the bright sunlight, from the darkness of the movie house, I had only two things in my mind''. (
S. E. Hinton
Susan Eloise Hinton (born July 22, 1948) is an American writer best known for her young-adult novels (YA) set in Oklahoma, especially '' The Outsiders'' (1967), which she wrote during high school. Hinton is credited with introducing the YA genr ...
, ''
The Outsiders'')
This complex sentence contains an adverbial clause, ''When I stepped out into the bright sunlight from the darkness of the movie house''. The adverbial clause describes when and where the action of the main clause, ''I had only two things on my mind'', took place.
A
relative clause
A relative clause is a clause that modifies a noun or noun phraseRodney D. Huddleston, Geoffrey K. Pullum, ''A Student's Introduction to English Grammar'', CUP 2005, p. 183ff. and uses some grammatical device to indicate that one of the arguments ...
is a dependent clause that modifies a
noun
A noun () is a word that generally functions as the name of a specific object or set of objects, such as living creatures, places, actions, qualities, states of existence, or ideas.Example nouns for:
* Living creatures (including people, alive, d ...
or noun phrase in the independent clause. In other words, the relative clause functions similar to an
adjective
In linguistics, an adjective (list of glossing abbreviations, abbreviated ) is a word that generally grammatical modifier, modifies a noun or noun phrase or describes its referent. Its semantic role is to change information given by the noun.
Tra ...
.
*''Let him who has been deceived complain''. (
Miguel de Cervantes
Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (; 29 September 1547 (assumed) – 22 April 1616 Old Style and New Style dates, NS) was an Early Modern Spanish writer widely regarded as the greatest writer in the Spanish language and one of the world's pre-emin ...
, ''
Don Quixote
is a Spanish epic novel by Miguel de Cervantes. Originally published in two parts, in 1605 and 1615, its full title is ''The Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha'' or, in Spanish, (changing in Part 2 to ). A founding work of Wester ...
'')
*''You, who have never known your family, see them standing around you.'' (
J.K. Rowling
Joanne Rowling ( "rolling"; born 31 July 1965), also known by her pen name J. K. Rowling, is a British author and philanthropist. She wrote ''Harry Potter'', a seven-volume children's fantasy series published from 1997 to 2007. The ser ...
, ''
Harry Potter and the Sorcerer's Stone
''Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone'' is a 1997 fantasy novel written by British author J. K. Rowling. The first novel in the '' Harry Potter'' series and Rowling's debut novel, it follows Harry Potter, a young wizard who discovers ...
'')
In the first example, the
restrictive relative clause
A relative clause is a clause that modifies a noun or noun phraseRodney D. Huddleston, Geoffrey K. Pullum, ''A Student's Introduction to English Grammar'', CUP 2005, p. 183ff. and uses some grammatical device to indicate that one of the arguments ...
''who has been deceived'' specifies or defines the meaning of ''him'' in the independent clause, ''Let him complain''. In the second example, the non-restrictive relative clause ''who have never known your family'' describes ''you'' in the independent clause, ''You see them standing around you''.
A noun clause is a dependent clause that functions like a noun. A noun clause may function as the
subject of a clause, a
predicate nominative In grammar, a subject complement or predicative of the subject is a predicative expression that follows a linking verb ( copula) and that complements the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it or (2) describing it. It completes the me ...
or an
object
Object may refer to:
General meanings
* Object (philosophy), a thing, being, or concept
** Object (abstract), an object which does not exist at any particular time or place
** Physical object, an identifiable collection of matter
* Goal, an ...
.
*''What she had realized was that love was that moment when your heart was about to burst.'' (
Stieg Larsson, ''
The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo
''The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo'' (original title in sv, Män som hatar kvinnor , lit=''Men Who Hate Women'') is a psychological thriller novel by Swedish author and journalist Stieg Larsson (1954–2004). It was published posthumously in 2 ...
'')
In this sentence the independent clause contains two noun clauses. The noun clause ''What she had realized'' serves as the subject of the verb ''was'', and ''that love was that moment'' serves as
complement
A complement is something that completes something else.
Complement may refer specifically to:
The arts
* Complement (music), an interval that, when added to another, spans an octave
** Aggregate complementation, the separation of pitch-clas ...
. The sentence also contains a relative clause, ''when your heart was about to burst''.
Incomplete sentences
![Mind the gap Chinglish sign in Shanghai](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Mind_the_gap_Chinglish_sign_in_Shanghai.jpg)
An incomplete sentence, or sentence fragment, is a set of words that does not form a complete sentence, either because it does not express a complete thought or because it lacks some grammatical element, such as a subject or a verb.
[ A ]dependent clause
A subordinate clause, dependent clause, subclause, or embedded clause is a clause that is embedded within a complex sentence. For instance, in the English sentence "I know that Bette is a dolphin", the clause "that Bette is a dolphin" occurs as t ...
without an independent clause
An independent clause (or main clause) is a clause that can stand by itself as a ''simple sentence''. An independent clause contains a subject and a predicate and makes sense by itself.
Independent clauses can be joined by using a semicolon or ...
is an example of an incomplete sentence.
An -''ing'' fragment is a type of incomplete sentence containing a word ending in -''ing'' that is a gerund
In linguistics, a gerund ( abbreviated ) is any of various nonfinite verb forms in various languages; most often, but not exclusively, one that functions as a noun. In English, it has the properties of both verb and noun, such as being modifiable ...
or noun, not a verb, because it lacks a helping verb. An example is, "Swimming in the ocean".
Some prescriptive grammar
Linguistic prescription, or prescriptive grammar, is the establishment of rules defining preferred usage of language. These rules may address such linguistic aspects as spelling, pronunciation, vocabulary, syntax, and semantics. Sometimes info ...
s consider sentences starting with a conjunction
Conjunction may refer to:
* Conjunction (grammar), a part of speech
* Logical conjunction, a mathematical operator
** Conjunction introduction, a rule of inference of propositional logic
* Conjunction (astronomy), in which two astronomical bodies ...
such as ''but'' or ''and'' to be incomplete sentences, but this style prescription has "no historical or grammatical foundation". Computer grammar checkers often highlight incomplete sentences.
Run-on sentences
A ''run-on'' sentence consists of two or more independent clauses
An independent clause (or main clause) is a clause that can stand by itself as a ''simple sentence''. An independent clause contains a Subject (grammar), subject and a Predicate (grammar), predicate and makes sense by itself.
Independent clauses ...
(i.e. clauses that have not been made dependent through the use of a relative pronoun or a subordinating conjunction) that are joined without appropriate punctuation: the clauses "run on" into confusion. The independent clauses can be "fused", as in "It is nearly half past five we cannot reach town before dark", in which case the two independent clauses might be separated (between "five" and "we") with a period ..five. We... a comma and conjunction (...five, and we...), or a semicolon (...five; we...). The independent clauses can be joined ''inadequately'' with only a comma (the comma splice
In written English usage, a comma splice or comma fault is the use of a comma to join two independent clauses. For example:
The comma splice is sometimes used in literary writing to convey a particular mood of informality. In the United States i ...
). James Joyce
James Augustine Aloysius Joyce (2 February 1882 – 13 January 1941) was an Irish novelist, poet, and literary critic. He contributed to the modernist avant-garde movement and is regarded as one of the most influential and important writers of ...
's novel ''Ulysses
Ulysses is one form of the Roman name for Odysseus, a hero in ancient Greek literature.
Ulysses may also refer to:
People
* Ulysses (given name), including a list of people with this name
Places in the United States
* Ulysses, Kansas
* Ulysse ...
'' employs a stream of consciousness
In literary criticism, stream of consciousness is a narrative mode or method that attempts "to depict the multitudinous thoughts and feelings which pass through the mind" of a narrator. The term was coined by Daniel Oliver (physician), Daniel Ol ...
, which takes literary license by intentionally breaking this grammatical rule by use of long, punctuation-free, run-on sentences, particularly in the final chapter "Penelope
Penelope ( ; Ancient Greek: Πηνελόπεια, ''Pēnelópeia'', or el, Πηνελόπη, ''Pēnelópē'') is a character in Homer's ''Odyssey.'' She was the queen of Ithaca and was the daughter of Spartan king Icarius and naiad Periboea. Pe ...
".
In general, run-on sentences occur when two or more independent clauses are joined without using a coordinating conjunction
In grammar, a conjunction (abbreviated or ) is a part of speech that connects words, phrases, or clauses that are called the conjuncts of the conjunctions. That definition may overlap with that of other parts of speech and so what constitutes a ...
(i.e. ''for'', ''and'', ''nor'', ''but'', ''or'', ''yet'', ''so'') or correct punctuation (i.e. semicolon, dash, or period). A run-on sentence can be as short as four words – for instance, ''I drive she walks'', or even ''I drive, she walks,'' – because in these short cases there are two subjects paired with two intransitive verb
In grammar, an intransitive verb is a verb whose context does not entail a direct object. That lack of transitivity distinguishes intransitive verbs from transitive verbs, which entail one or more objects. Additionally, intransitive verbs are ...
s. An imperative sentence
The imperative mood is a grammatical mood that forms a command or request.
The imperative mood is used to demand or require that an action be performed. It is usually found only in the present tense, second person. To form the imperative mood, ...
like "Run walk" can be a run-on even if it only has two words.
While some sources view comma splices as a form of run-on sentences, others limit the term to independent clauses that are joined without punctuation.
Per ''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'' (''AHD'') is an American English, American dictionary of English published by Boston publisher Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Houghton Mifflin, the first edition of which appeared in 1969. ...
'', the term "run-on sentence" is also used for "a very long sentence, especially one lacking order or coherence".''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language''
/ref>
See also
*Comma splice
In written English usage, a comma splice or comma fault is the use of a comma to join two independent clauses. For example:
The comma splice is sometimes used in literary writing to convey a particular mood of informality. In the United States i ...
References
External links
*
*
*
{{Philosophy of language
Syntactic entities
Sentences by type
Punctuation
English grammar
Clauses