In
mathematical analysis
Analysis is the branch of mathematics dealing with continuous functions, limit (mathematics), limits, and related theories, such as Derivative, differentiation, Integral, integration, measure (mathematics), measure, infinite sequences, series (m ...
, a
metric space
In mathematics, a metric space is a set together with a notion of ''distance'' between its elements, usually called points. The distance is measured by a function called a metric or distance function. Metric spaces are the most general settin ...
is called complete (or a Cauchy space) if every
Cauchy sequence
In mathematics
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in m ...
of points in has a
limit
Limit or Limits may refer to:
Arts and media
* ''Limit'' (manga), a manga by Keiko Suenobu
* ''Limit'' (film), a South Korean film
* Limit (music), a way to characterize harmony
* "Limit" (song), a 2016 single by Luna Sea
* "Limits", a 2019 ...
that is also in .
Intuitively, a space is complete if there are no "points missing" from it (inside or at the boundary). For instance, the set of
rational number
In mathematics, a rational number is a number that can be expressed as the quotient or fraction of two integers, a numerator and a non-zero denominator . For example, is a rational number, as is every integer (e.g. ). The set of all ration ...
s is not complete, because e.g.
is "missing" from it, even though one can construct a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers that converges to it (see further examples below). It is always possible to "fill all the holes", leading to the ''completion'' of a given space, as explained below.
Definition
Cauchy sequence
A sequence
in a
metric space
In mathematics, a metric space is a set together with a notion of ''distance'' between its elements, usually called points. The distance is measured by a function called a metric or distance function. Metric spaces are the most general settin ...
is called Cauchy if for every positive
real number
In mathematics, a real number is a number that can be used to measure a ''continuous'' one-dimensional quantity such as a distance, duration or temperature. Here, ''continuous'' means that values can have arbitrarily small variations. Every real ...
there is a positive
integer
An integer is the number zero (), a positive natural number (, , , etc.) or a negative integer with a minus sign (−1, −2, −3, etc.). The negative numbers are the additive inverses of the corresponding positive numbers. In the language ...
such that for all positive integers
Complete space
A metric space
is complete if any of the following equivalent conditions are satisfied:
:#Every
Cauchy sequence
In mathematics
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in m ...
of points in
has a
limit
Limit or Limits may refer to:
Arts and media
* ''Limit'' (manga), a manga by Keiko Suenobu
* ''Limit'' (film), a South Korean film
* Limit (music), a way to characterize harmony
* "Limit" (song), a 2016 single by Luna Sea
* "Limits", a 2019 ...
that is also in
:#Every Cauchy sequence in
converges in
(that is, to some point of
).
:#Every decreasing sequence of
non-empty
In mathematics, the empty set is the unique set having no elements; its size or cardinality (count of elements in a set) is zero. Some axiomatic set theories ensure that the empty set exists by including an axiom of empty set, while in other t ...
closed
subset
In mathematics, Set (mathematics), set ''A'' is a subset of a set ''B'' if all Element (mathematics), elements of ''A'' are also elements of ''B''; ''B'' is then a superset of ''A''. It is possible for ''A'' and ''B'' to be equal; if they are ...
s of
with
diameters
In geometry, a diameter of a circle is any straight line segment that passes through the center of the circle and whose endpoints lie on the circle. It can also be defined as the longest chord of the circle. Both definitions are also valid fo ...
tending to 0, has a non-empty
intersection: if
is closed and non-empty,
for every
and
then there is a point
common to all sets
Examples
The space Q of
rational number
In mathematics, a rational number is a number that can be expressed as the quotient or fraction of two integers, a numerator and a non-zero denominator . For example, is a rational number, as is every integer (e.g. ). The set of all ration ...
s, with the standard metric given by the
absolute value
In mathematics, the absolute value or modulus of a real number x, is the non-negative value without regard to its sign. Namely, , x, =x if is a positive number, and , x, =-x if x is negative (in which case negating x makes -x positive), an ...
of the
difference
Difference, The Difference, Differences or Differently may refer to:
Music
* ''Difference'' (album), by Dreamtale, 2005
* ''Differently'' (album), by Cassie Davis, 2009
** "Differently" (song), by Cassie Davis, 2009
* ''The Difference'' (al ...
, is not complete.
Consider for instance the sequence defined by
and
This is a Cauchy sequence of rational numbers, but it does not converge towards any rational limit: If the sequence did have a limit
then by solving
necessarily
yet no rational number has this property.
However, considered as a sequence of
real number
In mathematics, a real number is a number that can be used to measure a ''continuous'' one-dimensional quantity such as a distance, duration or temperature. Here, ''continuous'' means that values can have arbitrarily small variations. Every real ...
s, it does converge to the
irrational number
In mathematics, the irrational numbers (from in- prefix assimilated to ir- (negative prefix, privative) + rational) are all the real numbers that are not rational numbers. That is, irrational numbers cannot be expressed as the ratio of two integ ...
.
The
open interval
In mathematics, a (real) interval is a set of real numbers that contains all real numbers lying between any two numbers of the set. For example, the set of numbers satisfying is an interval which contains , , and all numbers in between. Other ...
, again with the absolute value metric, is not complete either.
The sequence defined by is Cauchy, but does not have a limit in the given space.
However the
closed interval
is complete; for example the given sequence does have a limit in this interval and the limit is zero.
The space R of real numbers and the space C of
complex number
In mathematics, a complex number is an element of a number system that extends the real numbers with a specific element denoted , called the imaginary unit and satisfying the equation i^= -1; every complex number can be expressed in the form ...
s (with the metric given by the absolute value) are complete, and so is
Euclidean space
Euclidean space is the fundamental space of geometry, intended to represent physical space. Originally, that is, in Euclid's Elements, Euclid's ''Elements'', it was the three-dimensional space of Euclidean geometry, but in modern mathematics ther ...
R
''n'', with the
usual distance metric.
In contrast, infinite-dimensional
normed vector space
In mathematics, a normed vector space or normed space is a vector space over the real or complex numbers, on which a norm is defined. A norm is the formalization and the generalization to real vector spaces of the intuitive notion of "length" i ...
s may or may not be complete; those that are complete are
Banach space
In mathematics, more specifically in functional analysis, a Banach space (pronounced ) is a complete normed vector space. Thus, a Banach space is a vector space with a metric that allows the computation of vector length and distance between vector ...
s.
The space C of
continuous real-valued functions on a closed and bounded interval is a Banach space, and so a complete metric space, with respect to the
supremum norm
In mathematical analysis, the uniform norm (or ) assigns to real- or complex-valued bounded functions defined on a set the non-negative number
:\, f\, _\infty = \, f\, _ = \sup\left\.
This norm is also called the , the , the , or, when the ...
.
However, the supremum norm does not give a norm on the space C of continuous functions on , for it may contain unbounded functions.
Instead, with the topology of
compact convergence
In mathematics compact convergence (or uniform convergence on compact sets) is a type of convergence that generalizes the idea of uniform convergence. It is associated with the compact-open topology.
Definition
Let (X, \mathcal) be a topological ...
, C can be given the structure of a
Fréchet space
In functional analysis and related areas of mathematics, Fréchet spaces, named after Maurice Fréchet, are special topological vector spaces.
They are generalizations of Banach spaces ( normed vector spaces that are complete with respect to th ...
: a
locally convex topological vector space
In functional analysis and related areas of mathematics, locally convex topological vector spaces (LCTVS) or locally convex spaces are examples of topological vector spaces (TVS) that generalize normed spaces. They can be defined as topological vec ...
whose topology can be induced by a complete translation-invariant metric.
The space Q
''p'' of
''p''-adic numbers is complete for any
prime number
A prime number (or a prime) is a natural number greater than 1 that is not a product of two smaller natural numbers. A natural number greater than 1 that is not prime is called a composite number. For example, 5 is prime because the only ways ...
This space completes Q with the ''p''-adic metric in the same way that R completes Q with the usual metric.
If
is an arbitrary set, then the set of all
sequence
In mathematics, a sequence is an enumerated collection of objects in which repetitions are allowed and order matters. Like a set, it contains members (also called ''elements'', or ''terms''). The number of elements (possibly infinite) is calle ...
s in
becomes a complete metric space if we define the distance between the sequences
and
to be
where
is the smallest index for which
is
distinct from
or
if there is no such index.
This space is
homeomorphic
In the mathematical field of topology, a homeomorphism, topological isomorphism, or bicontinuous function is a bijective and continuous function between topological spaces that has a continuous inverse function. Homeomorphisms are the isomorphi ...
to the
product
Product may refer to:
Business
* Product (business), an item that serves as a solution to a specific consumer problem.
* Product (project management), a deliverable or set of deliverables that contribute to a business solution
Mathematics
* Produ ...
of a
countable
In mathematics, a set is countable if either it is finite or it can be made in one to one correspondence with the set of natural numbers. Equivalently, a set is ''countable'' if there exists an injective function from it into the natural numbers; ...
number of copies of the
discrete space
In topology, a discrete space is a particularly simple example of a topological space or similar structure, one in which the points form a , meaning they are '' isolated'' from each other in a certain sense. The discrete topology is the finest to ...
Riemannian manifold
In differential geometry, a Riemannian manifold or Riemannian space , so called after the German mathematician Bernhard Riemann, is a real manifold, real, smooth manifold ''M'' equipped with a positive-definite Inner product space, inner product ...
s which are complete are called
geodesic manifold In mathematics, a complete manifold (or geodesically complete manifold) is a (pseudo-) Riemannian manifold for which, starting at any point , you can follow a "straight" line indefinitely along any direction. More formally, the exponential map a ...
s; completeness follows from the
Hopf–Rinow theorem
Hopf–Rinow theorem is a set of statements about the geodesic completeness of Riemannian manifolds. It is named after Heinz Hopf and his student Willi Rinow, who published it in 1931. Stefan Cohn-Vossen extended part of the Hopf–Rinow theorem ...
.
Some theorems
Every
compact
Compact as used in politics may refer broadly to a pact or treaty; in more specific cases it may refer to:
* Interstate compact
* Blood compact, an ancient ritual of the Philippines
* Compact government, a type of colonial rule utilized in British ...
metric space is complete, though complete spaces need not be compact. In fact, a metric space is compact
if and only if
In logic and related fields such as mathematics and philosophy, "if and only if" (shortened as "iff") is a biconditional logical connective between statements, where either both statements are true or both are false.
The connective is bicondi ...
it is complete and
totally bounded In topology and related branches of mathematics, total-boundedness is a generalization of compactness for circumstances in which a set is not necessarily closed. A totally bounded set can be covered by finitely many subsets of every fixed “size†...
. This is a generalization of the
Heine–Borel theorem, which states that any closed and bounded subspace
of is compact and therefore complete.
Let
be a complete metric space. If
is a closed set, then
is also complete.
Let
be a metric space. If
is a complete subspace, then
is also closed.
If
is a
set
Set, The Set, SET or SETS may refer to:
Science, technology, and mathematics Mathematics
*Set (mathematics), a collection of elements
*Category of sets, the category whose objects and morphisms are sets and total functions, respectively
Electro ...
and
is a complete metric space, then the set
of all
bounded function
In mathematics, a function ''f'' defined on some set ''X'' with real or complex values is called bounded if the set of its values is bounded. In other words, there exists a real number ''M'' such that
:, f(x), \le M
for all ''x'' in ''X''. A fun ...
s from to
is a complete metric space. Here we define the distance in
in terms of the distance in
with the
supremum norm
In mathematical analysis, the uniform norm (or ) assigns to real- or complex-valued bounded functions defined on a set the non-negative number
:\, f\, _\infty = \, f\, _ = \sup\left\.
This norm is also called the , the , the , or, when the ...
If
is a
topological space
In mathematics, a topological space is, roughly speaking, a geometrical space in which closeness is defined but cannot necessarily be measured by a numeric distance. More specifically, a topological space is a set whose elements are called points ...
and
is a complete metric space, then the set
consisting of all
continuous
Continuity or continuous may refer to:
Mathematics
* Continuity (mathematics), the opposing concept to discreteness; common examples include
** Continuous probability distribution or random variable in probability and statistics
** Continuous ...
bounded functions
is a closed subspace of
and hence also complete.
The
Baire category theorem
The Baire category theorem (BCT) is an important result in general topology and functional analysis. The theorem has two forms, each of which gives sufficient conditions for a topological space to be a Baire space (a topological space such that the ...
says that every complete metric space is a
Baire space
In mathematics, a topological space X is said to be a Baire space if countable unions of closed sets with empty interior also have empty interior.
According to the Baire category theorem, compact Hausdorff spaces and complete metric spaces are ...
. That is, the
union
Union commonly refers to:
* Trade union, an organization of workers
* Union (set theory), in mathematics, a fundamental operation on sets
Union may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
Music
* Union (band), an American rock group
** ''Un ...
of
countably many
In mathematics, a set is countable if either it is finite or it can be made in one to one correspondence with the set of natural numbers. Equivalently, a set is ''countable'' if there exists an injective function from it into the natural number ...
nowhere dense
In mathematics, a subset of a topological space is called nowhere dense or rare if its closure has empty interior. In a very loose sense, it is a set whose elements are not tightly clustered (as defined by the topology on the space) anywhere. ...
subsets of the space has empty
interior.
The
Banach fixed-point theorem
In mathematics, the Banach fixed-point theorem (also known as the contraction mapping theorem or contractive mapping theorem) is an important tool in the theory of metric spaces; it guarantees the existence and uniqueness of fixed points of certa ...
states that a contraction mapping on a complete metric space admits a fixed point. The fixed-point theorem is often used to prove the
inverse function theorem
In mathematics, specifically differential calculus, the inverse function theorem gives a sufficient condition for a function to be invertible in a neighborhood of a point in its domain: namely, that its ''derivative is continuous and non-zero at ...
on complete metric spaces such as Banach spaces.
Completion
For any metric space ''M'', it is possible to construct a complete metric space ''M′'' (which is also denoted as
), which contains ''M'' as a
dense subspace
In topology and related areas of mathematics, a subset ''A'' of a topological space ''X'' is said to be dense in ''X'' if every point of ''X'' either belongs to ''A'' or else is arbitrarily "close" to a member of ''A'' — for instance, the ra ...
. It has the following
universal property
In mathematics, more specifically in category theory, a universal property is a property that characterizes up to an isomorphism the result of some constructions. Thus, universal properties can be used for defining some objects independently fro ...
: if ''N'' is any complete metric space and ''f'' is any
uniformly continuous function
In mathematics, a real function f of real numbers is said to be uniformly continuous if there is a positive real number \delta such that function values over any function domain interval of the size \delta are as close to each other as we want. In ...
from ''M'' to ''N'', then there exists a
unique uniformly continuous function ''f′'' from ''M′'' to ''N'' that extends ''f''. The space ''M is determined
up to Two Mathematical object, mathematical objects ''a'' and ''b'' are called equal up to an equivalence relation ''R''
* if ''a'' and ''b'' are related by ''R'', that is,
* if ''aRb'' holds, that is,
* if the equivalence classes of ''a'' and ''b'' wi ...
isometry
In mathematics, an isometry (or congruence, or congruent transformation) is a distance-preserving transformation between metric spaces, usually assumed to be bijective. The word isometry is derived from the Ancient Greek: ἴσος ''isos'' mea ...
by this property (among all complete metric spaces isometrically containing ''M''), and is called the ''completion'' of ''M''.
The completion of ''M'' can be constructed as a set of
equivalence class
In mathematics, when the elements of some set S have a notion of equivalence (formalized as an equivalence relation), then one may naturally split the set S into equivalence classes. These equivalence classes are constructed so that elements a ...
es of Cauchy sequences in ''M''. For any two Cauchy sequences
and
in ''M'', we may define their distance as
(This limit exists because the real numbers are complete.) This is only a
pseudometric, not yet a metric, since two different Cauchy sequences may have the distance 0. But "having distance 0" is an
equivalence relation
In mathematics, an equivalence relation is a binary relation that is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. The equipollence relation between line segments in geometry is a common example of an equivalence relation.
Each equivalence relation ...
on the set of all Cauchy sequences, and the set of equivalence classes is a metric space, the completion of ''M''. The original space is embedded in this space via the identification of an element ''x'' of ''M with the equivalence class of sequences in ''M'' converging to ''x'' (i.e., the equivalence class containing the sequence with constant value ''x''). This defines an
isometry
In mathematics, an isometry (or congruence, or congruent transformation) is a distance-preserving transformation between metric spaces, usually assumed to be bijective. The word isometry is derived from the Ancient Greek: ἴσος ''isos'' mea ...
onto a dense subspace, as required. Notice, however, that this construction makes explicit use of the completeness of the real numbers, so completion of the rational numbers needs a slightly different treatment.
Cantor
A cantor or chanter is a person who leads people in singing or sometimes in prayer. In formal Jewish worship, a cantor is a person who sings solo verses or passages to which the choir or congregation responds.
In Judaism, a cantor sings and lead ...
's construction of the real numbers is similar to the above construction; the real numbers are the completion of the rational numbers using the ordinary absolute value to measure distances. The additional subtlety to contend with is that it is not logically permissible to use the completeness of the real numbers in their own construction. Nevertheless, equivalence classes of Cauchy sequences are defined as above, and the set of equivalence classes is easily shown to be a
field
Field may refer to:
Expanses of open ground
* Field (agriculture), an area of land used for agricultural purposes
* Airfield, an aerodrome that lacks the infrastructure of an airport
* Battlefield
* Lawn, an area of mowed grass
* Meadow, a grass ...
that has the rational numbers as a subfield. This field is complete, admits a natural
total ordering
In mathematics, a total or linear order is a partial order in which any two elements are comparable. That is, a total order is a binary relation \leq on some set X, which satisfies the following for all a, b and c in X:
# a \leq a ( reflexive) ...
, and is the unique totally ordered complete field (up to isomorphism). It is ''defined'' as the field of real numbers (see also
Construction of the real numbers
In mathematics, there are several equivalent ways of defining the real numbers. One of them is that they form a complete ordered field that does not contain any smaller complete ordered field. Such a definition does not prove that such a complete o ...
for more details). One way to visualize this identification with the real numbers as usually viewed is that the equivalence class consisting of those Cauchy sequences of rational numbers that "ought" to have a given real limit is identified with that real number. The truncations of the decimal expansion give just one choice of Cauchy sequence in the relevant equivalence class.
For a prime
the
-adic numbers arise by completing the rational numbers with respect to a different metric.
If the earlier completion procedure is applied to a
normed vector space
In mathematics, a normed vector space or normed space is a vector space over the real or complex numbers, on which a norm is defined. A norm is the formalization and the generalization to real vector spaces of the intuitive notion of "length" i ...
, the result is a
Banach space
In mathematics, more specifically in functional analysis, a Banach space (pronounced ) is a complete normed vector space. Thus, a Banach space is a vector space with a metric that allows the computation of vector length and distance between vector ...
containing the original space as a dense subspace, and if it is applied to an
inner product space
In mathematics, an inner product space (or, rarely, a Hausdorff pre-Hilbert space) is a real vector space or a complex vector space with an operation called an inner product. The inner product of two vectors in the space is a scalar, often den ...
, the result is a
Hilbert space
In mathematics, Hilbert spaces (named after David Hilbert) allow generalizing the methods of linear algebra and calculus from (finite-dimensional) Euclidean vector spaces to spaces that may be infinite-dimensional. Hilbert spaces arise natural ...
containing the original space as a dense subspace.
Topologically complete spaces
Completeness is a property of the ''metric'' and not of the ''
topology
In mathematics, topology (from the Greek language, Greek words , and ) is concerned with the properties of a mathematical object, geometric object that are preserved under Continuous function, continuous Deformation theory, deformations, such ...
'', meaning that a complete metric space can be
homeomorphic
In the mathematical field of topology, a homeomorphism, topological isomorphism, or bicontinuous function is a bijective and continuous function between topological spaces that has a continuous inverse function. Homeomorphisms are the isomorphi ...
to a non-complete one. An example is given by the real numbers, which are complete but homeomorphic to the open interval , which is not complete.
In
topology
In mathematics, topology (from the Greek language, Greek words , and ) is concerned with the properties of a mathematical object, geometric object that are preserved under Continuous function, continuous Deformation theory, deformations, such ...
one considers ''
completely metrizable space In mathematics, a completely metrizable space (metrically topologically complete space) is a topological space (''X'', ''T'') for which there exists at least one metric (mathematics), metric ''d'' on ''X'' such that (''X'', ''d'') is a complete spac ...
s'', spaces for which there exists at least one complete metric inducing the given topology. Completely metrizable spaces can be characterized as those spaces that can be written as an intersection of countably many open subsets of some complete metric space. Since the conclusion of the
Baire category theorem
The Baire category theorem (BCT) is an important result in general topology and functional analysis. The theorem has two forms, each of which gives sufficient conditions for a topological space to be a Baire space (a topological space such that the ...
is purely topological, it applies to these spaces as well.
Completely metrizable spaces are often called ''topologically complete''. However, the latter term is somewhat arbitrary since metric is not the most general structure on a topological space for which one can talk about completeness (see the section
Alternatives and generalizations). Indeed, some authors use the term ''topologically complete'' for a wider class of topological spaces, the
completely uniformizable space In mathematics, a topological space (''X'', ''T'') is called completely uniformizable (or Dieudonné complete) if there exists at least one complete uniformity that induces the topology ''T''. Some authors additionally require ''X'' to be Hausdorf ...
s.
[Kelley, Problem 6.L, p. 208]
A topological space homeomorphic to a
separable complete metric space is called a
Polish space
In the mathematical discipline of general topology, a Polish space is a separable completely metrizable topological space; that is, a space homeomorphic to a complete metric space that has a countable dense subset. Polish spaces are so named bec ...
.
Alternatives and generalizations
Since
Cauchy sequence
In mathematics
Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in m ...
s can also be defined in general
topological group
In mathematics, topological groups are logically the combination of groups and topological spaces, i.e. they are groups and topological spaces at the same time, such that the continuity condition for the group operations connects these two str ...
s, an alternative to relying on a metric structure for defining completeness and constructing the completion of a space is to use a group structure. This is most often seen in the context of
topological vector space
In mathematics, a topological vector space (also called a linear topological space and commonly abbreviated TVS or t.v.s.) is one of the basic structures investigated in functional analysis.
A topological vector space is a vector space that is als ...
s, but requires only the existence of a continuous "subtraction" operation. In this setting, the distance between two points
and
is gauged not by a real number
via the metric
in the comparison
but by an open neighbourhood
of
via subtraction in the comparison
A common generalisation of these definitions can be found in the context of a
uniform space
In the mathematical field of topology, a uniform space is a set with a uniform structure. Uniform spaces are topological spaces with additional structure that is used to define uniform properties such as completeness, uniform continuity and unifo ...
, where an
entourage
An entourage () is an informal group or band of people who are closely associated with a (usually) famous, notorious, or otherwise notable individual. The word can also refer to:
Arts and entertainment
* L'entourage, French hip hop / rap collecti ...
is a set of all pairs of points that are at no more than a particular "distance" from each other.
It is also possible to replace Cauchy ''sequences'' in the definition of completeness by Cauchy ''
nets'' or
Cauchy filters. If every Cauchy net (or equivalently every Cauchy filter) has a limit in
then
is called complete. One can furthermore construct a completion for an arbitrary uniform space similar to the completion of metric spaces. The most general situation in which Cauchy nets apply is
Cauchy space In general topology and analysis, a Cauchy space is a generalization of metric spaces and uniform spaces for which the notion of Cauchy convergence still makes sense. Cauchy spaces were introduced by H. H. Keller in 1968, as an axiomatic tool deriv ...
s; these too have a notion of completeness and completion just like uniform spaces.
See also
*
*
*
*
*
*
Notes
References
*
*
Kreyszig, Erwin, ''Introductory functional analysis with applications'' (Wiley, New York, 1978).
*
Lang, Serge, "Real and Functional Analysis"
*
{{DEFAULTSORT:Complete Metric Space
Metric geometry
Topology
Uniform spaces