HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Combat was a large movement in the
French Resistance The French Resistance (french: La Résistance) was a collection of organisations that fought the German occupation of France during World War II, Nazi occupation of France and the Collaborationism, collaborationist Vichy France, Vichy régim ...
created in the non-occupied zone of France during the
Second World War World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposi ...
(1939–1945). Combat was one of the eight great resistance movements which constituted the
Conseil national de la Résistance The National Council of the Resistance (also, National Resistance Council; in French: ''Conseil National de la Résistance'' (CNR), was the body that directed and coordinated the different movements of the French Resistance: the press, trade uni ...
.


Combat's development

Combat, also known under its former name (MLN), was active both in the unoccupied zone in southern France and in the occupied north.


Birth and growth

Combat was created in August 1940 in
Lyon Lyon,, ; Occitan language, Occitan: ''Lion'', hist. ''Lionés'' also spelled in English as Lyons, is the List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, third-largest city and Urban area (France), second-largest metropolitan area of F ...
by
Henri Frenay Henri Frenay Sandoval (1905–1988) was a French military officer and French Resistance member. He was born in Lyon, France, on 11 November 1905, into a Catholic family with a military tradition. He studied the Germanic languages at the Universit ...
, supported by
Berty Albrecht Berty Albrecht (15 February 1893 – 31 May 1943) was a French feminist and Resistance martyr. Life Albrecht was born Berthe Wild in Marseilles on 15 February 1893 to a middle-class Protestant family. She married the Dutch banker Frédéric Al ...
. Through a system of regional heads, he spread the movement through six regions within the free zone: *
Lyon Lyon,, ; Occitan language, Occitan: ''Lion'', hist. ''Lionés'' also spelled in English as Lyons, is the List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, third-largest city and Urban area (France), second-largest metropolitan area of F ...
(10 départements)................... (R1) led jointly by Marcel Peck and André Plaisantin *
Marseille Marseille ( , , ; also spelled in English as Marseilles; oc, Marselha ) is the prefecture of the French department of Bouches-du-Rhône and capital of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. Situated in the camargue region of southern Fra ...
(7 départements)............... (R2) * Montpellier (6 départements)............ (R3) *
Toulouse Toulouse ( , ; oc, Tolosa ) is the prefecture of the French department of Haute-Garonne and of the larger region of Occitania. The city is on the banks of the River Garonne, from the Mediterranean Sea, from the Atlantic Ocean and from Pa ...
(9 départements)............... (R4) * Limoges (9 départements)................ (R5), led until 1943 by
Edmond Michelet Edmond Michelet (8 October 1899 – 9 October 1970) was a French politician. He is the father of the writer Claude Michelet. On 17 June 1940, he distributed tracts calling to continue the war in all Brive-la-Gaillarde's mailboxes. It is consid ...
*
Clermont-Ferrand Clermont-Ferrand (, ; ; oc, label=Auvergnat, Clarmont-Ferrand or Clharmou ; la, Augustonemetum) is a city and commune of France, in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, with a population of 146,734 (2018). Its metropolitan area (''aire d'attract ...
(5 départements)... (R6) New regions appeared later, particularly in the north of France (''e.g.'' Jura and
Brittany Brittany (; french: link=no, Bretagne ; br, Breizh, or ; Gallo language, Gallo: ''Bertaèyn'' ) is a peninsula, Historical region, historical country and cultural area in the west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known ...
). Little by little, the MLN (subsequently renamed the ''Mouvement de Libération Française''), merged with other smaller networks in the regions where it took root. On merging with the ''Liberté'' network at the end of 1941, the movement took on the name of Combat. At this point, however, Combat took a
Gaullist Gaullism (french: link=no, Gaullisme) is a French political stance based on the thought and action of World War II French Resistance leader Charles de Gaulle, who would become the founding President of the Fifth French Republic. De Gaulle with ...
approach, causing a split with other networks which tended towards
Philippe Pétain Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Pétain (24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951), commonly known as Philippe Pétain (, ) or Marshal Pétain (french: Maréchal Pétain), was a French general who attained the position of Marshal of France at the end of Worl ...
. The break caused Combat's sources of information to be diminished somewhat. A satellite organization by the name of '' Combat-zone nord'', was also created in the occupied zone, specifically in Paris. The organiser was Robert Guédon, called ''Robert''. ''Combat-zone nord'' proved to be quite active, quickly growing its network into several regions of the occupied zone such as the
Nord-Pas-de-Calais Nord-Pas-de-Calais (); pcd, Nord-Pas-Calés); is a former administrative region of France. Since 1 January 2016, it has been part of the new region Hauts-de-France. It consisted of the departments of Nord and Pas-de-Calais. Nord-Pas-de-Calais ...
.


Initial obstacles

Among the initial Combat members planted in the occupied zone, there was an agent of the '' Abwehr'',
Henri Devillers Henri Devillers (1914 – 19 June 1942) was a V-mann (agent for penetration) for the '' Abwehr'' III F (Nazi counter-espionage). Devillers was taken prisoner in 1940, and obtained his freedom in exchange for promising to work for the German servic ...
, involved in linking and communications between the parts of the movement in the free and occupied zones. Jean-Paul Lien, another member of combat, learned about Devilliers' treachery by accident from two German agents. Lien alerted Henri Frenay, who had no power to stop Devilliers. 47 members of Combat were arrested, 31 by the ''
Gestapo The (), abbreviated Gestapo (; ), was the official secret police of Nazi Germany and in German-occupied Europe. The force was created by Hermann Göring in 1933 by combining the various political police agencies of Prussia into one orga ...
'' and 16 by the French police, of whom only two would be released. They were tried by the ''Volkgerichthof'' (people's tribunal) and 23 were sentenced to death; this was referred to as the ''affaire Continent''. The movement was completely disbanded in the occupied zone between the end of 1941 and the beginning of 1942. Frenay decided not to rebuild there but to concentrate all his efforts in the free zone. A new movement was born from the ashes of ''Combat-zone nord'', ''
Ceux de la Résistance ''Ceux de la Résistance'' ("Those of the Resistance") (CDLR) was a French resistance movement during the German occupation of France in World War II. At first, the members of CDLR distributed copies of the underground newspaper Combat in the nor ...
'', founded by
Jacques Lecompte-Boinet Ancient and noble French family names, Jacques, Jacq, or James are believed to originate from the Middle Ages in the historic northwest Brittany region in France, and have since spread around the world over the centuries. To date, there are over ...
. Frenay also declined repeated offers to put himself at the service of the
Deuxième Bureau The Deuxième Bureau de l'État-major général ("Second Bureau of the General Staff") was France's external military intelligence agency from 1871 to 1940. It was dissolved together with the Third Republic upon the armistice with Germany. Howeve ...
of the
Vichy Regime Vichy France (french: Régime de Vichy; 10 July 1940 – 9 August 1944), officially the French State ('), was the fascist French state headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II. Officially independent, but with half of its ter ...
or of the
Intelligence service An intelligence agency is a government agency responsible for the collection, analysis, and exploitation of information in support of law enforcement, national security, military, public safety, and foreign policy objectives. Means of informatio ...
of London, preferring to keep his independence and continue to fight for France alone rather than a foreign power. In the beginning of summer 1942, another network called ''Carte'', which was directly linked to the British
Special Operations Executive The Special Operations Executive (SOE) was a secret British World War II organisation. It was officially formed on 22 July 1940 under Minister of Economic Warfare Hugh Dalton, from the amalgamation of three existing secret organisations. Its pu ...
and therefore better armed at that time than the other French networks in the free zone, took over two of Combat's groups on the Côte d'Azur. Frenay sent a message to the SOE asking them to stop taking his teams away from him. It did not happen again. This may have been due to the displeasure expressed by Frenay in his message, or alternatively to the invasion of the free zone by the Germans a few months later.


1943

After the Allies landed in North Africa, the Germans invaded the free zone. This plunged Combat undercover, since they now had to deal with the well-organised ''Gestapo''. Secrecy and security measures were reinforced. Messages were encrypted, rendezvous locations were specified by letters and generally were moved to outside Lyon, which became by degrees the capital of the French resistance. Arrests took place from February onwards, followed by escapes. Combat was infiltrated by ''Gestapo'' and ''Abwehr'' agents. In January, the idea of amalgamating the three big resistance movements of the south (Combat, Libération and
Franc-tireurs (, French for "free shooters") were irregular military formations deployed by France during the early stages of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). The term was revived and used by partisans to name two major French Resistance movements se ...
) gradually gained ground, culminating between February and March in ''
Mouvements Unis de la Résistance The Communist Party of Belgium (french: Parti Communiste de Belgique, or PCB; nl, Communistische Partij van België) is a communist party in Belgium. It was founded in Wallonia in 1989 as the Communist Party of Wallonia after the Communist Party ...
'' (MUR). The steering committee of each movement lost much of its importance. Combat was represented on the steering committee of the MUR by Frenay, who was also the commissioner on military affairs of the three networks. The press of the three movements remained independent, and Combat's newspaper continued to exist in its own right. Combat's structure was unchanged by its affiliation to the MUR; it retained a steering committee, and branches for political and military affairs among others.


Internal organisation

Combat was led by a steering committee, over which Frenay permanently presided. In March 1943, the other five members were Georges Bidault,
Claude Bourdet Claude Bourdet (28 October 1909 – 20 March 1996) was a writer, journalist, polemist, and militant French politician. Peronal life Bourdet was a son of the dramatic author Édouard Bourdet and the poet Catherine Pozzi, was born and died in Pari ...
,
Maurice Chevance Maurice may refer to: People *Saint Maurice (died 287), Roman legionary and Christian martyr *Maurice (emperor) or Flavius Mauricius Tiberius Augustus (539–602), Byzantine emperor *Maurice (bishop of London) (died 1107), Lord Chancellor and Lo ...
, Alfred Coste-Floret,
François de Menthon Count François de Menthon (8 January 1900 – 2 June 1984) was a French politician and professor of law. Early and private life Menthon was born in Montmirey-la-Ville in Jura. He was a son of an old noble family from Menthon-Saint-Bernard. He ...
(former head of ''Liberté''), et
Pierre-Henri Teitgen Pierre-Henri Teitgen (29 May 1908 – 6 April 1997) was a French lawyer, professor and politician.Johnson, Douglas (9 April 1997) ''The Independent''. Retrieved 21 January 2016 Teitgen was born in Rennes, Brittany. Taken POW in 1940, he playe ...
. In January 1943, Combat contained a total of 14 specialised services and more than 100 permanent agents, paid by the network. The network was split into four branches: * External relations, led by Pierre Bénouville. This oversaw a delegation to Switzerland, relations with the United States of America and the British services. The external relations branch became indispensable at the start of 1943, when Combat needed money and armaments which the English were slow in providing. One member of the branch, Phillippe Monod, made contact with the American Office of Strategic Services in Switzerland to procure these. The external branch became larger and more organized. The American OSS promised to give aid to the French resistance in the future, but this promise was not followed up after the British embassy opposed it, and General Charles de Gaulle forbade any further discussion on the matter. * Military affairs, led by
Maurice Chevance Maurice may refer to: People *Saint Maurice (died 287), Roman legionary and Christian martyr *Maurice (emperor) or Flavius Mauricius Tiberius Augustus (539–602), Byzantine emperor *Maurice (bishop of London) (died 1107), Lord Chancellor and Lo ...
, included the '' Groupes Francs'' of
Jacques Renouvin Jacques Renouvin (6 October 1905 – 24 January 1944) was a royalist militant in France during the Second World War and hero of the French resistance. Born in Paris, Renouvin studied law and initially became a lawyer. He initially supported Actio ...
, the
Armée secrète The armée secrète was a French military organization active during World War II. The collective grouped the paramilitary formations of the three most important Gaullist resistance movements in the southern zone. History In mid-1942, in t ...
, the
Maquis Maquis may refer to: Resistance groups * Maquis (World War II), predominantly rural guerrilla bands of the French Resistance * Spanish Maquis, guerrillas who fought against Francoist Spain in the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War * The network ...
, and the ''Sabotage-Fer'' led by
René Hardy René Hardy (31 October 1911 – 12 April 1987) was a member of the French Resistance during World War II. Hardy was born in Mortrée, Orne. In spite of having rendered dedicated and valuable service as a member of the resistance group, Combat (F ...
. * Political affairs, led by
Claude Bourdet Claude Bourdet (28 October 1909 – 20 March 1996) was a writer, journalist, polemist, and militant French politician. Peronal life Bourdet was a son of the dramatic author Édouard Bourdet and the poet Catherine Pozzi, was born and died in Pari ...
, oversaw propaganda, the information service of Jean Gemahling. * The general secretariat, led by
Berty Albrecht Berty Albrecht (15 February 1893 – 31 May 1943) was a French feminist and Resistance martyr. Life Albrecht was born Berthe Wild in Marseilles on 15 February 1893 to a middle-class Protestant family. She married the Dutch banker Frédéric Al ...
, was in charge of general services including lodging, false papers, finance and the ''service sociale'' (the ''service social'' was established in 1941, and allocated a small pension, income, goods and food to the families of resistance members who had been captured.) Initially Combat was mainly financed through gifts coming from all over France, solicited by Frenay from high-ranking members of society. This situation changed quickly, however, and soon most resources were provided from London, through the agency of
Jean Moulin Jean Pierre Moulin (; 20 June 1899 – 8 July 1943) was a French civil servant and French Resistance, resistant who served as the first President of the National Council of the Resistance during World War II from 27 May 1943 until his death less ...
. At the beginning of 1943, the money received by Combat from London went up to five million Francs, of which ''Libération'' received 1.5 million, and ''Franc-Tireur'', just under a million. Moulin tried to separate the different activities of the network, particularly the information and the ''Choc'' (shock, heavy military operations), following directions given to him in London. He finally won his case when the ''MUR'' was created.


Activities and operations


The secret press

The activities of Combat originally revolved around the dispersal of information using secret newspapers. These pieces of information were provided to Frenay initially from army offices, then, after the disbandment of the French army, from the ''
Deuxième Bureau The Deuxième Bureau de l'État-major général ("Second Bureau of the General Staff") was France's external military intelligence agency from 1871 to 1940. It was dissolved together with the Third Republic upon the armistice with Germany. Howeve ...
'' of the Vichy regime. Combat quickly distanced itself from Vichy, after which information was gathered through various resistance groups with which Combat had links. These pieces of information fed into newspapers which were published from time to time. In the beginning Frenay mainly distributed bulletins in army offices; these bulletins stopped after the army broke up. In the occupied zone, the newspaper ''Les Petites Ailes du Nord et du Pas-de-Calais'' (little wings of the North and Pas-de-Calais) appeared. In time it became ''Les Petites Ailes de France'', then ''Résistance''. In the free zone, an underground newspaper was established, modelled on ''Petites Ailes de France''. Its name was ''Vérités'' (Truths). ''Vérité'' (Truth) had been considered for the name, but was judged too philosophical; according to Frenay, the truth was difficult, if not impossible to express. After the merger of Combat with ''Liberté'', ''Vérités'' was scuttled and its place taken by a new newspaper bearing the name of the network, '' Combat''. Other small journals also saw the light of day, but gradually separated from the Combat movement. Examples are ''
Veritas Veritas is the name given to the Roman virtue of truthfulness, which was considered one of the main virtues any good Roman should possess. The Greek goddess of truth is Aletheia (Ancient Greek: ). The German philosopher Martin Heidegger argues ...
'' and the
Catholic The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
-oriented '' Cahiers du Témoignage Chrétien'' (Christian witness notebooks). These journals, particularly the important ones, contained propaganda articles against the Vichy regime, which revealed and criticised the actions of the government and state apparatus, as well as substantive pieces dealing with ''e.g.''
Nazism Nazism ( ; german: Nazismus), the common name in English for National Socialism (german: Nationalsozialismus, ), is the far-right totalitarian political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) i ...
or collaboration. Frenay generally constructed the editorial of the Combat newspaper in person, until he joined de Gaulle in
Algeria ) , image_map = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg , map_caption = , image_map2 = , capital = Algiers , coordinates = , largest_city = capital , relig ...
. The subtitle of the Combat newspaper was ''Organe du Mouvement de la Libération Française'', accompanied by a quote from
Georges Clemenceau Georges Benjamin Clemenceau (, also , ; 28 September 1841 – 24 November 1929) was a French statesman who served as Prime Minister of France from 1906 to 1909 and again from 1917 until 1920. A key figure of the Independent Radicals, he was a ...
: ''"Dans la guerre comme dans la paix, le dernier mot est à ceux qui ne se rendent jamais."'' (In war as in peace, the last word is theirs that never surrender). In 1943, a section ''Attentats'' (attacks) was added to the paper; it contained a list of the paramilitary operations of Combat. The first issue of the Combat newspaper appeared in late 1941 in Lyon, with a press run of 10,000.
André Bollier André Bollier (May 30, 1920 – June 17, 1944) was a member of the French Resistance during World War II. Bollier was born in Paris and enrolled in the École Polytechnique in 1938. He was called up for military service after his first year of s ...
replaced Martinet, the initial printer for the movement. He distributed the printing across 14 presses in the free zone, thus reducing the need for transporting papers from Lyon, and allowing the run to be increased. In May 1944, the newspaper had a run of 250,000. Bollier was also responsible for printing ''Défense de la France'' (the future ''
France-Soir ''France Soir'' ( en, France Evening) was a French newspaper that prospered in physical format during the 1950s and 1960s, reaching a circulation of 1.5 million in the 1950s. It declined rapidly under various owners and was relaunched as a popul ...
''), ''Action'' (a paper with communist sympathy), the first issues of '' Témoignage chrétien'', and certain issues of the ''
Franc-Tireur (, French for "free shooters") were irregular military formations deployed by France during the early stages of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71). The term was revived and used by partisans to name two major French Resistance movements set ...
'' paper and '' La Voix du Nord''.


Information

Alongside the underground press activities, information was sent to London by circuitous routes. These operations were directed by Jean Gemahling, from
Alsace Alsace (, ; ; Low Alemannic German/ gsw-FR, Elsàss ; german: Elsass ; la, Alsatia) is a cultural region and a territorial collectivity in eastern France, on the west bank of the upper Rhine next to Germany and Switzerland. In 2020, it had ...
. The ''
Noyautage des administrations publiques Noyautage des administrations publiques, also known by the abbreviation NAP, was an arm of the French Resistance, started by André Plaisantin of the Combat (French Resistance), Combat movement, with the aim of infiltrating the Vichy Government. It ...
'' (infiltration of public services) was also established, with the original aim of recruiting public figures who would be able to assure the return of the republic after the Vichy regime fell. However, the ''NAP'' gradually changed direction and allowing itself necessary cooperation with public services and the ability to obtain basic information about German army movements. The ''NAP-police'' were created, whose members would warn their comrades about forthcoming arrests. Another branch, the ''NAP-fer'' led by
René Hardy René Hardy (31 October 1911 – 12 April 1987) was a member of the French Resistance during World War II. Hardy was born in Mortrée, Orne. In spite of having rendered dedicated and valuable service as a member of the resistance group, Combat (F ...
, provided the ''Groupes Francs'' with schedules of German supply trains from 1943. The NAP also operated within the customs service.


The Groupes de Choc

The ''Groupes de Choc'' were set up, generally specializing in attacks against collaborators and shopkeepers who sold collaborationist papers like the Nazi magazine ''
Signal In signal processing, a signal is a function that conveys information about a phenomenon. Any quantity that can vary over space or time can be used as a signal to share messages between observers. The '' IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing' ...
'' (the shops of the latter were generally blown up). From 1942 onwards the ''GC'' gradually merged into the Armée secrète which was assimilating by degrees the various paramilitary groups of Combat, Libération and Franc-Tireur. This merging was encouraged by Frenay and Moulin, who wanted the operations of the ''GC'' remained separate from any intelligence and propaganda activities. For this reason, the leadership of the
Armée Secrète The armée secrète was a French military organization active during World War II. The collective grouped the paramilitary formations of the three most important Gaullist resistance movements in the southern zone. History In mid-1942, in t ...
was not conferred upon Frenay as he had initially wanted (his movement being more significant than the other two members of the ''MUR'') but rather upon the division general
Charles Delestraint Charles Delestraint (12 March 1879 – 19 April 1945) was a French Army lieutenant general and member of the French Resistance during World War II. He also befriended Charles de Gaulle. Delestraint was killed by the Gestapo in 1945. Early life H ...
, who was recruited by the chef de Combat. The ''Sabotage'' and ''Maquis'' sections were added to the network in 1943.


Groupes Francs

Frenay put Jacques Renouvin in charge of mounting ''Groupes Francs'', mobile armed squads, in each of the six regions covered by the network. They were organised in the ''Choc'' branch of the network. They worked independently of the
Armée Secrète The armée secrète was a French military organization active during World War II. The collective grouped the paramilitary formations of the three most important Gaullist resistance movements in the southern zone. History In mid-1942, in t ...
but in contact with it to organise their operations and provide intelligence. The ''Groupes Frances'' organised their operations on their own initiative, following the general framework which was given them. They communicated the results of their operations to the steering committee. Before November 1942, the operations of the ''Groupes Francs'' were similar to those of the ''Groups de Choc''. They were responsible for obtaining their own arms from supply dumps or police posts, and making their own explosives or stealing them from mines. After the German invasion of the free zone in November 1942, the ''Groups Francs'' changed their operations style. They were ordered to attack trains containing German soldiers or going to Germany, to sabotage railway lines, to destroy arms factories and dumps and to assassinate ''Gestapo'' agents. The ''GF'' were supplied and armed by Britain through parachute dumps which provided them with Sten guns,
pistols A pistol is a handgun, more specifically one with the chamber integral to its gun barrel, though in common usage the two terms are often used interchangeably. The English word was introduced in , when early handguns were produced in Europe, ...
, ammunition, explosives, grenades and other equipment. The ''GF'' also organised escapes for captured resistance fighters such as that of
Paul Reynaud Paul Reynaud (; 15 October 1878 – 21 September 1966) was a French politician and lawyer prominent in the interwar period, noted for his stances on economic liberalism and militant opposition to Germany. Reynaud opposed the Munich Agreement of ...
(planned and prepared but never executed) and the successful escape of
Berty Albrecht Berty Albrecht (15 February 1893 – 31 May 1943) was a French feminist and Resistance martyr. Life Albrecht was born Berthe Wild in Marseilles on 15 February 1893 to a middle-class Protestant family. She married the Dutch banker Frédéric Al ...
who was being held at the Lyon-Bron psychiatric hospital. In January 1943, Jacques Renouvin, was arrested by the ''Gestapo'' getting off a train. He was held in
Fresnes prison Fresnes Prison (''French Centre pénitentiaire de Fresnes'') is the second largest prison in France, located in the town of Fresnes, Val-de-Marne, south of Paris. It comprises a large men's prison (''maison d'arrêt'') of about 1200 cells, a small ...
. A commando raid was mounted to free him but all its members were arrested. Renouvin was deported to
Mauthausen concentration camp Mauthausen was a Nazi concentration camp on a hill above the market town of Mauthausen, Upper Austria, Mauthausen (roughly east of Linz), Upper Austria. It was the main camp of a group with List of subcamps of Mauthausen, nearly 100 further ...
where he died. He was replaced as head of the ''GF'' by a member of Libération.


The Maquis

In 1943 the steering committee of Combat learned that refugees from the
Service du travail obligatoire The ' ( en, Compulsory Work Service; STO) was the forced enlistment and deportation of hundreds of thousands of French workers to Nazi Germany to work as forced labour for the German war effort during World War II. The STO was created under law ...
forced labour had fled to
Haute-Savoie Haute-Savoie (; Arpitan: ''Savouè d'Amont'' or ''Hiôta-Savouè''; en, Upper Savoy) or '; it, Alta Savoia. is a department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of Southeastern France, bordering both Switzerland and Italy. Its prefecture is Ann ...
and the
Maquis Maquis may refer to: Resistance groups * Maquis (World War II), predominantly rural guerrilla bands of the French Resistance * Spanish Maquis, guerrillas who fought against Francoist Spain in the aftermath of the Spanish Civil War * The network ...
had been created in the mountainous
massif In geology, a massif ( or ) is a section of a planet's crust that is demarcated by faults or flexures. In the movement of the crust, a massif tends to retain its internal structure while being displaced as a whole. The term also refers to a ...
s. The ''service Maquis'' was established in Combat's Military affairs branch with the aim of helping all those who had "taken the ''maquis''" to survive and to fight, and of providing them lives and armaments, and of integrating them into Combat's network. While the objective for Combat was to develop, oversee and organise these armed groups, there were some divisions relating to this at the heart of the ''MUR''; some, like
Charles Delestraint Charles Delestraint (12 March 1879 – 19 April 1945) was a French Army lieutenant general and member of the French Resistance during World War II. He also befriended Charles de Gaulle. Delestraint was killed by the Gestapo in 1945. Early life H ...
, saw the Maquis as actual pockets of resistance within French territory, whereas others like Frenay saw them as armed bands operating by ambush and disappearing once their mission was accomplished.


Some members of Combat


Dr Achille Lacroix
Mayor of the town of Narbonne * Benjamin Crémieux, (''Lamy''), organised information network from Marseille *
Henri Frenay Henri Frenay Sandoval (1905–1988) was a French military officer and French Resistance member. He was born in Lyon, France, on 11 November 1905, into a Catholic family with a military tradition. He studied the Germanic languages at the Universit ...
, founder of the network * Georges Bidault, member of the Combat steering committee * Jean-Guy Bernard, general secretary of Combat *
René Hardy René Hardy (31 October 1911 – 12 April 1987) was a member of the French Resistance during World War II. Hardy was born in Mortrée, Orne. In spite of having rendered dedicated and valuable service as a member of the resistance group, Combat (F ...
*
Albert Camus Albert Camus ( , ; ; 7 November 1913 – 4 January 1960) was a French philosopher, author, dramatist, and journalist. He was awarded the 1957 Nobel Prize in Literature at the age of 44, the second-youngest recipient in history. His work ...
* Pierre Bénouville, (''Lahire''), director of external relations *
Berty Albrecht Berty Albrecht (15 February 1893 – 31 May 1943) was a French feminist and Resistance martyr. Life Albrecht was born Berthe Wild in Marseilles on 15 February 1893 to a middle-class Protestant family. She married the Dutch banker Frédéric Al ...
, chargé of the General Secretariat Général and Henri Frenay's girlfriend *
Jean Gemahling Jean may refer to: People * Jean (female given name) * Jean (male given name) * Jean (surname) Fictional characters * Jean Grey, a Marvel Comics character * Jean Valjean, fictional character in novel ''Les Misérables'' and its adaptations * Jean ...
*
Jacques Renouvin Jacques Renouvin (6 October 1905 – 24 January 1944) was a royalist militant in France during the Second World War and hero of the French resistance. Born in Paris, Renouvin studied law and initially became a lawyer. He initially supported Actio ...
, organiser of the ''Groupes Francs'' *
Jane Sivadon Jane may refer to: * Jane (given name), a feminine given name * Jane (surname), related to the given name Film and television * ''Jane'' (1915 film), a silent comedy film directed by Frank Lloyd * ''Jane'' (2016 film), a South Korean drama fil ...
(''Jeannette''), member of Combat-zone north *
Maurice Chevance Maurice may refer to: People *Saint Maurice (died 287), Roman legionary and Christian martyr *Maurice (emperor) or Flavius Mauricius Tiberius Augustus (539–602), Byzantine emperor *Maurice (bishop of London) (died 1107), Lord Chancellor and Lo ...
(''Barrioz-Bertin''), military adjunct * Lieutenant Pierre de Froment (''Deblé''), member of Combat-zone north * Robert Guédon (''Robert''), chief of Combat-zone north *
Claude Bourdet Claude Bourdet (28 October 1909 – 20 March 1996) was a writer, journalist, polemist, and militant French politician. Peronal life Bourdet was a son of the dramatic author Édouard Bourdet and the poet Catherine Pozzi, was born and died in Pari ...
, political adjunct * Alfred Coste-Floret, member of Combat steering committee *
François de Menthon Count François de Menthon (8 January 1900 – 2 June 1984) was a French politician and professor of law. Early and private life Menthon was born in Montmirey-la-Ville in Jura. He was a son of an old noble family from Menthon-Saint-Bernard. He ...
, head of the Liberté network which merged with Combat in 1941 *
Pierre-Henri Teitgen Pierre-Henri Teitgen (29 May 1908 – 6 April 1997) was a French lawyer, professor and politician.Johnson, Douglas (9 April 1997) ''The Independent''. Retrieved 21 January 2016 Teitgen was born in Rennes, Brittany. Taken POW in 1940, he playe ...
, member of Combat steering committee * Jacques Dhont * Jacques Devillers, member of Combat-zone north, double agent of the Abwehr * Philippe Monod, member of the delegation of Combat to Switzerland * Jean-Paul Lien * Marcel Peck, regional chief of R1 * Marcel Degliame * André Plaisantin, regional chief of R1 * Joseph-Paul Rambaud, former senator for l'Ariège * Julien Freud * Antoinette Feuerwerker, educator and jurist, wife of David Feuerwerker, with
Edmond Michelet Edmond Michelet (8 October 1899 – 9 October 1970) was a French politician. He is the father of the writer Claude Michelet. On 17 June 1940, he distributed tracts calling to continue the war in all Brive-la-Gaillarde's mailboxes. It is consid ...
* David Feuerwerker, rabbi of Brive (Corrèze, Creuse, Lot), with
Edmond Michelet Edmond Michelet (8 October 1899 – 9 October 1970) was a French politician. He is the father of the writer Claude Michelet. On 17 June 1940, he distributed tracts calling to continue the war in all Brive-la-Gaillarde's mailboxes. It is consid ...
* Rose Warfman ( à l'époque Rose Gluck), nurse, deportee, Auschwitz survivor, with
Edmond Michelet Edmond Michelet (8 October 1899 – 9 October 1970) was a French politician. He is the father of the writer Claude Michelet. On 17 June 1940, he distributed tracts calling to continue the war in all Brive-la-Gaillarde's mailboxes. It is consid ...
*
Edmond Michelet Edmond Michelet (8 October 1899 – 9 October 1970) was a French politician. He is the father of the writer Claude Michelet. On 17 June 1940, he distributed tracts calling to continue the war in all Brive-la-Gaillarde's mailboxes. It is consid ...
* and many others.


Sources (French)

* * *


References

{{French Resistance French Resistance networks and movements