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Coloman the Learned, also the Book-Lover or the Bookish ( hu, Könyves Kálmán; hr, Koloman; sk, Koloman Učený; 10703February 1116) was
King of Hungary The King of Hungary ( hu, magyar király) was the ruling head of state of the Kingdom of Hungary from 1000 (or 1001) to 1918. The style of title "Apostolic King of Hungary" (''Apostoli Magyar Király'') was endorsed by Pope Clement XIII in 1758 ...
from 1095 and
King of Croatia This is a complete list of rulers of Croatia under domestic ethnic and elected dynasties during the Croatian Kingdom (925–1918). This article follows the monarch's title number according to Hungarian succession for convenience. For example, the ...
from 1097 until his death. Because Coloman and his younger brother
Álmos Álmos (), also Almos or Almus (c. 820 – c. 895), was—according to the uniform account of Hungarian chronicles—the first head of the "loose federation" of the Hungarian tribes from around 850. Whether he was the sacred ruler (''kende'') of ...
were underage when their father
Géza I Géza is a Hungarian given name and may refer to any of the following: * Benjamin Géza Affleck * Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians * Géza I of Hungary, King of Hungary * Géza II of Hungary, King of Hungary * Géza, son of Géza II of Hung ...
died, their uncle Ladislaus I ascended the throne in 1077. Ladislaus prepared Colomanwho was "half-blind and humpbacked", according to late medieval Hungarian chroniclesfor a church career, and Coloman was eventually appointed bishop of Eger or
Várad Várad is a village in Baranya county, Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania t ...
(Oradea,
Romania Romania ( ; ro, România ) is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern, and Southeast Europe, Southeastern Europe. It borders Bulgaria to the south, Ukraine to the north, Hungary to the west, S ...
) in the early 1090s. The dying King Ladislaus preferred Álmos to Coloman when nominating his heir in early 1095. Coloman fled from Hungary but returned around 19 July 1095 when his uncle died. He was crowned in early 1096; the circumstances of his accession to the throne are unknown. He granted the Hungarian
Duchy A duchy, also called a dukedom, is a Middle Ages, medieval country, territory, fiefdom, fief, or domain ruled by a duke or duchess, a ruler hierarchically second to the king or Queen regnant, queen in Western European tradition. There once exis ...
one-third of the
Kingdom of Hungary The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from the Middle Ages into the 20th century. The Principality of Hungary emerged as a Christian kingdom upon the coronation of the first king Stephen ...
to Álmos. In the year of Coloman's coronation, at least five large groups of
crusaders The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and sometimes directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The best known of these Crusades are those to the Holy Land in the period between 1095 and 1291 that were in ...
arrived in Hungary on their way to the
Holy Land The Holy Land; Arabic: or is an area roughly located between the Mediterranean Sea and the Eastern Bank of the Jordan River, traditionally synonymous both with the biblical Land of Israel and with the region of Palestine. The term "Holy ...
. He annihilated the bands who were entering his kingdom unauthorized or pillaging the countryside, but the main crusader army crossed Hungary without incident. He invaded Croatia in 1097, defeating its last native king
Petar Svačić Petar ( sr, Петар, bg, Петър) is a South Slavic masculine given name, their variant of the Biblical name Petros cognate to Peter. Derivative forms include Pero, Pejo, Pera, Perica, Petrica, Periša. Feminine equivalent is Petra. P ...
. Consequently, he was crowned king of Croatia in 1102. According to the late 14th-century ''
Pacta conventa ''Pacta conventa'' (Latin for "articles of agreement") was a contractual agreement, from 1573 to 1764 entered into between the "Polish nation" (i.e., the szlachta (nobility) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and a newly elected king upon ...
'' (the authenticity of which is not universally accepted by scholars), he was only crowned after having ratified a treaty with the leaders of the
Croatian nobility Croatian nobility ( hr, plemstvo, lit=vlastelin; french: la noblesse) was a privileged social class in Croatia during the Antiquity and Medieval periods of the country's history. Noble families in the Kingdom of Croatia included high ranking popu ...
. For centuries thereafter, the Hungarian monarchs were also the kings of Croatia. Coloman had to face his brother's attempts to dethrone him throughout his life; Álmos devised plots to overthrow him on at least five occasions. In retaliation, he seized his brother's duchy in 1107 or 1108 and had Álmos and Álmos' son
Béla Béla may refer to: * Béla (crater), an elongated lunar crater * Béla (given name), a common Hungarian male given name See also * Bela (disambiguation) * Belá (disambiguation) * Bělá (disambiguation) Bělá, derived from ''bílá'' (''whit ...
blinded in about 1114. Hungarian chronicles, which were compiled in the reigns of kings descending from his mutilated brother and nephew, depict Coloman as a bloodthirsty and unfortunate monarch. On the other hand, he is portrayed as "the most well-versed in the science of letters among all the kings of his day"''The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles'' (ch. 2.29), p. 173. by the contemporaneous chronicler
Gallus Anonymus ''Gallus Anonymus'' ( Polonized variant: ''Gall '') is the name traditionally given to the anonymous author of ''Gesta principum Polonorum'' (Deeds of the Princes of the Poles), composed in Latin between 1112 and 1118. ''Gallus'' is generally rega ...
. Coloman's decrees, which governed many aspects of lifeincluding taxation, trade and relations between his Christian and non-Christian subjectsremained unmodified for more than a century. He was the first Hungarian king to renounce control of the appointment of prelates in his realms.


Early years (''c.'' 1070–1095)

Coloman was the elder of the two sons of King
Géza I Géza is a Hungarian given name and may refer to any of the following: * Benjamin Géza Affleck * Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians * Géza I of Hungary, King of Hungary * Géza II of Hungary, King of Hungary * Géza, son of Géza II of Hung ...
who survived infancy. Géza's Byzantine second wifewhose baptismal name is unknownleft Hungary after her husband's death, implying that she was not his children's mother. Consequently, the mother of Coloman and his younger brother,
Álmos Álmos (), also Almos or Almus (c. 820 – c. 895), was—according to the uniform account of Hungarian chronicles—the first head of the "loose federation" of the Hungarian tribes from around 850. Whether he was the sacred ruler (''kende'') of ...
, must have been Géza's first wife, Sophia, whose family is unknown. According to historians
Gyula Kristó Gyula Kristó (11 July 1939 – 24 January 2004) was a Hungarian historian and medievalist, member of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences The Hungarian Academy of Sciences ( hu, Magyar Tudományos Akadémia, MTA) is the most important and pres ...
and Márta Font, the brothers were born around 1070, because they were mature enough to hold offices in the early 1090s. Coloman's uncommon baptismal name was recorded as Colomanus or Colombanus in medieval documents written in
Latin Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power of the ...
. Kristó writes that he was most probably named after Saint
Coloman of Stockerau Coloman of Stockerau ( ga, Colmán; la, Colomannus; died 18 October 1012) was an Irish saint. While on pilgrimage to the Holy Land, he was mistaken for a spy and hanged near Vienna. Life Originally known as Colmán (variously rendered Koloman, K ...
, a missionary who was martyred in
Austria Austria, , bar, Östareich officially the Republic of Austria, is a country in the southern part of Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine states, one of which is the capital, Vienna, the most populous ...
in the early 11th century. Another possibility is that his name is of Turkish origin (meaning "rest"), because his brother bore a Turkish name. Coloman's father ascended the throne in 1074. Because Coloman and Álmos were minors when he died on 25April 1077, Géza's brother Ladislaus I succeeded him. The new king decided that Coloman should be prepared for a career in the Church. The king's decision was unusual as Coloman was older than Álmos and elder brothers were rarely ordained priests. The 14th-century ''
Illuminated Chronicle The ''Chronicon Pictum'' (Latin for "illustrated chronicle", English: ''Illuminated Chronicle'' or ''Vienna Illuminated Chronicle'', hu, Képes Krónika, sk, Obrázková kronika, german: Illustrierte Chronik, also referred to as ''Chronica Hung ...
'' stated that Coloman was "of mean stature, but astute and quick of apprehension", adding that he was "shaggy and hirsute, half-blind and humpbacked, and he walked with a limp and stammered in his speech".''The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle'' (ch. 143.102), p. 131. If the chronicle preserved genuine tradition of his appearance, his physical deformity may have influenced his uncle's decision. However, modern scholars tend to refute this view, emphasizing that the chronicle was completed in the reigns of kings descending from Álmos. In preparation for his clerical life, Coloman learnt to read and write and acquired a good knowledge of Latin. His proficiency in
canon law Canon law (from grc, κανών, , a 'straight measuring rod, ruler') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members. It is th ...
was praised in a letter that
Pope Urban II Pope Urban II ( la, Urbanus II;  – 29 July 1099), otherwise known as Odo of Châtillon or Otho de Lagery, was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 12 March 1088 to his death. He is best known for convening th ...
addressed to him in 1096. According to Kristó, upon finishing his studies he was ordained priest and in the early 1090s was appointed bishop. Hungarian chronicles completed in the 14th and 15th centuries say that Coloman was bishop of either
Eger Eger ( , ; ; also known by other alternative names) is the county seat of Heves County, and the second largest city in Northern Hungary (after Miskolc). A city with county rights. Eger is best known for its castle, thermal baths, baroque build ...
or
Várad Várad is a village in Baranya county, Hungary Hungary ( hu, Magyarország ) is a landlocked country in Central Europe. Spanning of the Carpathian Basin, it is bordered by Slovakia to the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania t ...
. For instance, the ''Illuminated Chronicle'' states that he was "bishop of Warad" (or Várad),''The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle'' (ch. 152.108), p. 133. and LadislausI wanted to appoint him "bishop of Agria" (or Eger).''The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle'' (ch. 139.100), p. 130. According to the ''Illuminated Chronicle'', both Coloman and Álmos accompanied their uncle on a military campaign against
Bohemia Bohemia ( ; cs, Čechy ; ; hsb, Čěska; szl, Czechy) is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech Republic. Bohemia can also refer to a wider area consisting of the historical Lands of the Bohemian Crown ruled by the Bohem ...
in early 1095. Before reaching the border of his kingdom, LadislausI "was overcome by a grave infirmity"''The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle'' (ch. 140.101), p. 130. and decided to appoint Álmos as his heir. Instead of obeying his uncle's decision, Coloman fled to Poland. He returned to Hungary around 29July 1095 when his uncle died. The exact circumstances of his ascension to the throne are uncertain. The ''Illuminated Chronicle'' states Ladislaus had invited him back from Poland. The same source adds that Álmos, "in the true simplicity of his heart honoured his brother, Coloman, and yielded to him the crown of the kingdom", which suggests that he ascended the throne without bloodshed. On the other hand, Coloman was crowned king in early 1096, the delay implying that the two brothers had been fighting for the crown before they reached an agreement. It is also possible, as proposed by Font, that he could only be crowned after Pope UrbanII had released him from his clerical vows.


Reign


Facing the crusaders (1095–1096)

Coloman was crowned in
Székesfehérvár Székesfehérvár (; german: Stuhlweißenburg ), known colloquially as Fehérvár ("white castle"), is a city in central Hungary, and the country's ninth-largest city. It is the regional capital of Central Transdanubia, and the centre of Fejér ...
by Archbishop Seraphin of Esztergom. According to the ''Illuminated Chronicle'', at the same time he "granted the dukedom with full rights" to Álmos.''The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle'' (ch. 142.102), p. 131. This report shows that Álmos only acknowledged his brother's rule in exchange for receiving the
duchy A duchy, also called a dukedom, is a Middle Ages, medieval country, territory, fiefdom, fief, or domain ruled by a duke or duchess, a ruler hierarchically second to the king or Queen regnant, queen in Western European tradition. There once exis ...
once held by their father and
grandfather Grandparents, individually known as grandmother and grandfather, are the parents of a person's father or mother – paternal or maternal. Every sexually-reproducing living organism who is not a genetic chimera has a maximum of four genetic ...
, an area that comprised one third of the territory of the kingdom. Shortly after his coronation, Coloman had to face problems that the armies of the
First Crusade The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars, or Crusades, initiated, supported and at times directed by the Latin Church in the medieval period. The objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Islamic ru ...
caused while passing through Hungary. For decades, Hungary had been able to supply a significant number of Western European pilgrims with food during their journey to the
Holy Land The Holy Land; Arabic: or is an area roughly located between the Mediterranean Sea and the Eastern Bank of the Jordan River, traditionally synonymous both with the biblical Land of Israel and with the region of Palestine. The term "Holy ...
, but the movement of tens of thousands of crusaders across the country endangered the natives' subsistence. The first group of crusaders, led by
Walter Sans Avoir Walter Sans Avoir (in French Fr. Gautier Sans-Avoir; died 21 October 1096) was the lord of Boissy-sans-Avoir in the Île-de-France. He was mistakenly known as Walter the Penniless. While his name literally means "Walter without having", it actual ...
, reached the frontier in early May 1096. Coloman received them in a friendly way and allowed them into the kingdom. He also authorized them to buy food in the markets, although harvest had not started yet. They proceeded through Hungary without any major conflicts. The only incident occurred near the Hungarian–Byzantine border at Zimony (Zemun,
Serbia Serbia (, ; Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), officially the Republic of Serbia (Serbian language, Serbian: , , ), is a landlocked country in Southeast Europe, Southeastern and Central Europe, situated at the crossroads of the Pannonian Bas ...
). Here, "certain Hungarians with evil minds" attacked sixteen crusaders who had tried to buy weapons near the town, seizing the crusaders' clothes, armor, and money. The next arrivals, headed by
Peter the Hermit Peter the Hermit ( 1050 – 8 July 1115 or 1131), also known as Little Peter, Peter of Amiens ( fr. ''Pierre d'Amiens'') or Peter of Achères ( fr. ''Pierre d'Achères''), was a Roman Catholic priest of Amiens and a key figure during the militar ...
, arrived in late May or early June. Coloman permitted them to enter Hungary only after Peter pledged that he would prevent them from pillaging the countryside. According to
Guibert of Nogent Guibert de Nogent (c. 1055 – 1124) was a Benedictine historian, theologian and author of autobiographical memoirs. Guibert was relatively unknown in his own time, going virtually unmentioned by his contemporaries. He has only recently caught the ...
's records, Peter could not keep his promise: the crusaders "burned the public granaries ..., raped virgins, dishonored many marriage beds by carrying off many women", although "the Hungarians, as Christians to Christians, had generously offered everything for sale" to them. Peter himself claimed that he and his companions had passed through the country without incident until they reached Zimony, where they learnt of the story of the sixteen crusaders who had been robbed by the Hungarians. The crusaders besieged and took the town, where they massacred " out four thousand Hungarians", according to the contemporaneous
Albert of Aix Albert of Aix(-la-Chapelle) or Albert of Aachen; la, Albericus Aquensis; ''fl.'' c. 1100) was a historian of the First Crusade and the early Kingdom of Jerusalem. He was born during the later part of the 11th century, and afterwards became canon (p ...
's estimation. They only withdrew when Coloman's troops approached them. A third band of crusaders reached Nyitra (Nitra,
Slovakia Slovakia (; sk, Slovensko ), officially the Slovak Republic ( sk, Slovenská republika, links=no ), is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the s ...
) and began plundering the region. These were soon routed by the locals. A fourth army came to
Moson Moson ( German: Wieselburg, Slovak: Mošon) was an administrative county (comitatus) of the Kingdom of Hungary, situated mostly on the right (south) side of the Danube river. Its territory is now divided between Austria and Hungary, except a sm ...
in the middle of June. Coloman did not allow them to leave the region, either because he had learnt of their troublesome behavior during their journey, or he had realized that their movement across Hungary could jeopardize the stability of the local economy. To seize food and wine, the crusaders made frequent pillaging raids against the nearby settlements. Coloman decided to attack them, but the commanders of the army convinced him to persuade the crusaders to surrender their weapons and money, promising them that they would be supplied with food during their journey. After the crusaders were disarmed, Coloman's troops attacked and massacred them near
Pannonhalma Pannonhalma (german: Martinsberg; sk, Rábsky Svätý Martin) is a town in Győr-Moson-Sopron County, western Hungary, with approximately 4,000 inhabitants. It is about from Győr. Archduke Otto Habsburg's heart is kept at the Pannonhalma Archab ...
in early July. Alarmed by these incidents, Coloman forbade the crusaders who arrived under the leadership of Count Emicho in the middle of July to enter Hungary. Ignoring the king's order, they broke through the defensive lines and laid siege to Moson. Their catapults destroyed the walls in two places, enabling them to storm into the fortress on 15August. Coloman made preparations to flee to Rus', fearing that the crusaders would occupy the whole country. However, for no apparent reason, a panic broke out among the attackers that enabled the garrison to carry out a sortie and rout them. Modern scholars agree that rumours about the sudden arrival of Coloman's army frightened the crusaders off from the fortress. According to Albert of Aix, contemporaneous Christians thought that Emicho's defeat was a punishment that God inflicted on the pilgrims because they had massacred many Jews "rather from greed for their money than for divine justice". The first crusader army organized by the Holy See reached the borders of Hungary in September 1096. It was led by
Godfrey of Bouillon Godfrey of Bouillon (, , , ; 18 September 1060 – 18 July 1100) was a French nobleman and pre-eminent leader of the First Crusade. First ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem from 1099 to 1100, he avoided the title of king, preferring that of princ ...
,
Duke of Lower Lorraine The rulers of Lorraine have held different posts under different governments over different regions, since its creation as the kingdom of Lotharingia by the Treaty of Prüm, in 855. The first rulers of the newly established region were kings of t ...
. Godfrey sent a knight who had already been known to Coloman to start negotiations about the crusaders' entry into Hungary. Eight days later, Coloman agreed to meet with Godfrey in
Sopron Sopron (; german: Ödenburg, ; sl, Šopron) is a city in Hungary on the Austrian border, near Lake Neusiedl/Lake Fertő. History Ancient times-13th century When the area that is today Western Hungary was a province of the Roman Empire, a ...
. The king allowed the crusaders to march through his kingdom but stipulated that Godfrey's younger brother Baldwin and his family should stay with him as hostages. The crusaders passed through Hungary peacefully along the right bank of the
Danube The Danube ( ; ) is a river that was once a long-standing frontier of the Roman Empire and today connects 10 European countries, running through their territories or being a border. Originating in Germany, the Danube flows southeast for , pa ...
; Coloman and his army followed them on the left bank. He only released his hostages after all the crusaders had crossed the river
Sava The Sava (; , ; sr-cyr, Сава, hu, Száva) is a river in Central and Southeast Europe, a right-bank and the longest tributary of the Danube. It flows through Slovenia, Croatia and along its border with Bosnia and Herzegovina, and finally th ...
, which marked the kingdom's southern frontier. The uneventful march of the main crusader army across Hungary established Coloman's good reputation throughout Europe. The contemporaneous
Cosmas of Prague Cosmas of Prague ( cs, Kosmas Pražský; la, Cosmas Decanus; – October 21, 1125) was a priest, writer and historian. Life Between 1075 and 1081, he studied in Liège. After his return to Bohemia, he married Božetěcha, with whom he had a s ...
wrote that "some of the Jews" who had been persecuted by the crusaders in Bohemia arrived in Hungary and "secretly took their wealth away with them". Although Cosmas does not specify their number, László Mezey and other historians say that the Jews represented a large influx. Coloman issued a number of decrees and separate statutes''Capitula de Iudeis''regulating the position of Jews in Hungary. For instance, he forbade them from holding Christian slaves and residing "outside episcopal sees". Historian Nora Berend writes that the "defence of purity of Christians by interdictions against mingling with Jews plays a very minor role" in Coloman's legislation in comparison with late 12th-century canon law. Whereas he did not try to convert the Jews, he issued decrees aimed at the conversion of his Muslim subjects. For instance, he prescribed that if a Muslim "has a guest, or anyone invited to dinner, both he and his table companions shall eat only pork for meat" in order to prevent Muslims from observing their dietary laws.


Expansion, internal conflicts and legislation (1096–1105)

After Coloman's victories over the crusaders,
Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV (german: Heinrich IV; 11 November 1050 – 7 August 1106) was Holy Roman Emperor from 1084 to 1105, King of Germany from 1054 to 1105, King of Italy and Burgundy from 1056 to 1105, and Duke of Bavaria from 1052 to 1054. He was the son ...
, whom LadislausI had supported against Pope UrbanII in his last years, wrote a letter to Duke Álmos. The emperor stated that Coloman had neglected imperial interests "because of his own necessities", and asked the duke to intervene on his behalf. However, Colomana former bishopabandoned his predecessor's foreign policy and supported the pope. Historian Gyula Kristó writes that Álmos's close relationship with Emperor Henry may also have influenced Coloman's decision. Coloman married
Felicia The name Felicia derives from the Latin adjective ''felix'', meaning "happy, lucky", though in the neuter plural form ''felicia'' it literally means "happy things" and often occurred in the phrase ''tempora felicia'', "happy times". The sense of ...
, a daughter of
Roger I of Sicily Roger I ( it, Ruggero I, Arabic: ''رُجار'', ''Rujār''; Maltese: ''Ruġġieru'', – 22 June 1101), nicknamed Roger Bosso and The Great, was a Norman nobleman who became the first Count of Sicily from 1071 to 1101. He was a member of the H ...
a close ally of the
Holy See The Holy See ( lat, Sancta Sedes, ; it, Santa Sede ), also called the See of Rome, Petrine See or Apostolic See, is the jurisdiction of the Pope in his role as the bishop of Rome. It includes the apostolic episcopal see of the Diocese of Rome ...
in 1097. Her sister
Constance Constance may refer to: Places *Konstanz, Germany, sometimes written as Constance in English *Constance Bay, Ottawa, Canada * Constance, Kentucky * Constance, Minnesota * Constance (Portugal) * Mount Constance, Washington State People * Consta ...
had married Conrad, the elder son of Emperor HenryIV, after he allied with the pope against his father. Coloman invaded
Croatia , image_flag = Flag of Croatia.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Croatia.svg , anthem = "Lijepa naša domovino"("Our Beautiful Homeland") , image_map = , map_caption = , capit ...
in 1097. LadislausI had already occupied most of the country, but
Petar Svačić Petar ( sr, Петар, bg, Петър) is a South Slavic masculine given name, their variant of the Biblical name Petros cognate to Peter. Derivative forms include Pero, Pejo, Pera, Perica, Petrica, Periša. Feminine equivalent is Petra. P ...
, the last native king of Croatia, resisted him in the Kapela Mountains. Petar Svačić died fighting against Coloman's army in the
Battle of Gvozd Mountain The Battle of Gvozd Mountain took place in 1097 and was fought between the army of Petar Snačić and King Coloman I of Hungary. It was a decisive Hungarian victory, which ended the War of the Croatian Succession and served as a turning point ...
. The Hungarian troops reached the
Adriatic Sea The Adriatic Sea () is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkan Peninsula. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Sea) to t ...
and occupied
Biograd na Moru Biograd na Moru (), shortened to simply Biograd (), is a town in northern Dalmatia, Croatia and is significant for being another capital of the medieval Kingdom of Croatia. Biograd is administratively part of the Zadar County. It is located on t ...
, an important port. Threatened by the advance of Coloman's army, the citizens of the towns of
Trogir Trogir (; historically known as Traù (from Dalmatian, Venetian and Italian: ); la, Tragurium; Ancient Greek: Τραγύριον, ''Tragyrion'' or Τραγούριον, ''Tragourion'') is a historic town and harbour on the Adriatic coast in S ...
and
Split Split(s) or The Split may refer to: Places * Split, Croatia, the largest coastal city in Croatia * Split Island, Canada, an island in the Hudson Bay * Split Island, Falkland Islands * Split Island, Fiji, better known as Hạfliua Arts, enterta ...
swore fidelity to the
doge of Venice The Doge of Venice ( ; vec, Doxe de Venexia ; it, Doge di Venezia ; all derived from Latin ', "military leader"), sometimes translated as Duke (compare the Italian '), was the chief magistrate and leader of the Republic of Venice between 726 a ...
,
Vitale Michiel Vital I Michiel (died 1102) was a Doge of Venice; he was the 33rd traditional (30th historic) Doge of the Republic of Venice. A member of one of the so-called “twelve apostolic” families, he was married to Felicia Cornaro, who had influence o ...
, who had sailed to
Dalmatia Dalmatia (; hr, Dalmacija ; it, Dalmazia; see #Name, names in other languages) is one of the four historical region, historical regions of Croatia, alongside Croatia proper, Slavonia, and Istria. Dalmatia is a narrow belt of the east shore of ...
. Having no fleet, Coloman sent envoys with a letter to the doge to "remove all the former misunderstandings concerning what is due to one of us or the other by right of our predecessors". Their agreement of 1098the so-called ''Conventio Amicitiae''determined the spheres of interest of each party by allotting the coastal regions of Croatia to Hungary and Dalmatia to the
Republic of Venice The Republic of Venice ( vec, Repùblega de Venèsia) or Venetian Republic ( vec, Repùblega Vèneta, links=no), traditionally known as La Serenissima ( en, Most Serene Republic of Venice, italics=yes; vec, Serenìsima Repùblega de Venèsia, ...
. Taking advantage of Coloman's absence, Álmos began to conspire against the king and mustered his armies. Coloman returned from Croatia and marched his army towards his brother's duchy in 1098. The two armies met at
Tiszavárkony Tiszavárkony is a village in Jász-Nagykun-Szolnok county, in the Northern Great Plain region of central Hungary. Geography It covers an area of and has a population Population typically refers to the number of people in a single area, ...
, with only the river
Tisza The Tisza, Tysa or Tisa, is one of the major rivers of Central and Eastern Europe. Once, it was called "the most Hungarian river" because it flowed entirely within the Kingdom of Hungary. Today, it crosses several national borders. The Tisza be ...
separating them. However, the commanders of the two troops started negotiations and decided not to fight each other, compelling the king and the duke to make peace. Grand Prince Svyatopolk II of Kiev sent his son Iaroslav – who was the husband of one of Coloman's nieces – to Hungary to seek assistance against the princes of the westernmost regions of Rus' in 1099. Iaroslav persuaded Coloman to intervene in the conflict. Coloman and his army crossed the
Carpathian Mountains The Carpathian Mountains or Carpathians () are a range of mountains forming an arc across Central Europe. Roughly long, it is the third-longest European mountain range after the Urals at and the Scandinavian Mountains at . The range stretches ...
and laid siege to Peremyshl (Przemyśl, Poland)the seat of Volodar Rostislavich, one of the rebellious princes. David Igorevich, one of Volodar Rostislavich's allies, persuaded the
Cumans The Cumans (or Kumans), also known as Polovtsians or Polovtsy (plural only, from the Russian language, Russian Exonym and endonym, exonym ), were a Turkic people, Turkic nomadic people comprising the western branch of the Cuman–Kipchak confede ...
to attack the Hungarians. In the ensuing battle, the Hungarian army was soundly defeated. The ''
Illuminated Chronicle The ''Chronicon Pictum'' (Latin for "illustrated chronicle", English: ''Illuminated Chronicle'' or ''Vienna Illuminated Chronicle'', hu, Képes Krónika, sk, Obrázková kronika, german: Illustrierte Chronik, also referred to as ''Chronica Hung ...
'' says that " rely did Hungarians suffer such slaughter as in this battle". According to the ''
Russian Primary Chronicle The ''Tale of Bygone Years'' ( orv, Повѣсть времѧньныхъ лѣтъ, translit=Pověstĭ vremęnĭnyxŭ lětŭ; ; ; ; ), often known in English as the ''Rus' Primary Chronicle'', the ''Russian Primary Chronicle'', or simply the ...
'', many Hungarians "were drowned, some in the Vyagro and others in the San", after the battle. Coloman himself narrowly escaped from the battlefield through the valley of the San. Shortly after his return from Rus', Coloman hastened towards the Bohemian border to assist the dukes of Moravia Svatopluk and
Otto Otto is a masculine German given name and a surname. It originates as an Old High German short form (variants ''Audo'', ''Odo'', ''Udo'') of Germanic names beginning in ''aud-'', an element meaning "wealth, prosperity". The name is recorded fro ...
against Duke
Bretislaus II of Bohemia Bretislaus II (; c. 1060 – 22 December 1100) was the duke of Bohemia from 14 September 1092 until his death. He was the eldest son of King Vratislaus II and Adelaide, daughter of Andrew I of Hungary. He was a major enemy of paganism. Life H ...
. He had a meeting with Bretislaus on the border river Olšava "in the field of Lučsko" where "they renewed their age-old bonds of friendship and peace and confirmed them with oaths", according to Cosmas of Prague. Coloman decided to review his predecessors' decrees around 1100. Because he regarded
Stephen I of Hungary Stephen I, also known as King Saint Stephen ( hu, Szent István király ; la, Sanctus Stephanus; sk, Štefan I. or Štefan Veľký; 975 – 15 August 1038), was the last Grand Prince of the Hungarians between 997 and 1000 or 1001, and the f ...
, who had been
canonized Canonization is the declaration of a deceased person as an officially recognized saint, specifically, the official act of a Christianity, Christian communion declaring a person worthy of Cult (religious practice), public veneration and enterin ...
in 1083, as his ideal, he "assembled the magnates of the kingdom and reviewed with the advice of the entire council the text of the laws"''Laws of King Coloman'' (Coloman:Preamble), p. 24. of Stephen I. The assembly also passed decrees, which regulated several aspects of the economy and tempered the harshness of the legislation of LadislausI. One of the decrees prohibited the persecution of ''strigae''
vampire A vampire is a mythical creature that subsists by feeding on the Vitalism, vital essence (generally in the form of blood) of the living. In European folklore, vampires are undead, undead creatures that often visited loved ones and caused mi ...
s or maresbecause they "do not exist". The same law also dealt with '' malefici'' or "sorcerers", punishing their misdeeds. Taxes on trade were increased under Coloman, implying that commerce flourished in his reign. However, his legislation prohibited the export of Hungarian slaves and horses. Coins minted during his reign were smaller than those issued in his predecessor's reign to prevent the cutting down of their smooth edge. Coloman was crowned king of Croatia in Biograd na Moru in 1102. In the 13thcentury,
Thomas the Archdeacon Thomas the Archdeacon ( la, Thomas Archidiaconus; it, Tommaso Arcidiacono; hr, Toma Arhiđakon; c. 1200 – 8 May 1268), also known as Thomas of Spalato ( la, Thomas Spalatensis, hu, Spalatói Tamás), was a Roman Catholic cleric, historian and ...
wrote that the union of Croatia and Hungary was the consequence of conquest. However, the late 14th-century ''
Pacta conventa ''Pacta conventa'' (Latin for "articles of agreement") was a contractual agreement, from 1573 to 1764 entered into between the "Polish nation" (i.e., the szlachta (nobility) of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth) and a newly elected king upon ...
'' narrates that he was only crowned after he had reached an agreement with twelve leading Croatian noblemen, because the Croats were preparing to defend their kingdom against him by force. Whether this document is a forgery or an authentic source is a subject of scholarly debate. According to the historian Pál Engel, even if the document is a forgery, its content "is concordant with reality in more than one respect" concerning the special status of Croatia throughout the Middle Ages. For instance, in case of a foreign invasion, Croatian noblemen were obliged to fight at their own expense only up to the river , which was considered the border between Croatian territories and Hungary. In an attempt to prevent an alliance between Coloman and
Bohemond I of Antioch Bohemond I of Antioch (5 or 7 March 1111), also known as Bohemond of Taranto, was the prince of Taranto from 1089 to 1111 and the prince of Antioch from 1098 to 1111. He was a leader of the First Crusade, leading a contingent of Normans on the q ...
, the
Byzantine Emperor This is a list of the Byzantine emperors from the foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD, which marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, to its fall to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as le ...
Alexios I Komnenos Alexios I Komnenos ( grc-gre, Ἀλέξιος Κομνηνός, 1057 – 15 August 1118; Latinized Alexius I Comnenus) was Byzantine emperor from 1081 to 1118. Although he was not the first emperor of the Komnenian dynasty, it was during ...
arranged a marriage between his son and heir,
John John is a common English name and surname: * John (given name) * John (surname) John may also refer to: New Testament Works * Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John * First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John * Secon ...
, and Coloman's cousin,
Piroska Piroska is a Hungarian feminine given name. Derived from the Latin name ''Prisca'' ("ancient"), the Hungarian form of the name originally appeared as Piriska, later developing into Piroska. This change was likely due to Piriska's similarity to the ...
, in 1104 or 1105. The alliance with the Byzantine Empire also enabled Coloman to invade Dalmatia in 1105. According to the ''Life of the blessed John of Trogir'', he personally commanded his troops besieging
Zadar Zadar ( , ; historically known as Zara (from Venetian and Italian: ); see also other names), is the oldest continuously inhabited Croatian city. It is situated on the Adriatic Sea, at the northwestern part of Ravni Kotari region. Zadar serv ...
, the most influential among the Dalmatian towns. The siege lasted until Bishop John of Trogir negotiated a treaty between Coloman and the citizens who accepted the king's suzerainty. The town of Split likewise surrendered after a short siege, but two other Dalmatian towns
Trogir Trogir (; historically known as Traù (from Dalmatian, Venetian and Italian: ); la, Tragurium; Ancient Greek: Τραγύριον, ''Tragyrion'' or Τραγούριον, ''Tragourion'') is a historic town and harbour on the Adriatic coast in S ...
and
Šibenik Šibenik () is a historic city in Croatia, located in central Dalmatia, where the river Krka flows into the Adriatic Sea. Šibenik is a political, educational, transport, industrial and tourist center of Šibenik-Knin County, and is also the ...
capitulated without resistance. The ''Life of St Christopher the Martyr'' also says that a Hungarian fleet subjugated the islands of the
Gulf of Kvarner The Kvarner Gulf (, or , la, Sinus Flanaticus or ), sometimes also Kvarner Bay, is a bay in the northern Adriatic Sea, located between the Istrian peninsula and the northern Croatian Littoral mainland. The bay is a part of Croatia's internal wa ...
, including
Brač Brač is an island in the Adriatic Sea within Croatia, with an area of , making it the largest island in Dalmatia, and the third largest in the Adriatic. It is separated from the mainland by the Brač Channel, which is wide. The island's talle ...
,
Cres Cres (; dlm, Crepsa, vec, Cherso, it, Cherso, la, Crepsa, Greek language, Greek: Χέρσος, ''Chersos'') is an Adriatic island in Croatia. It is one of the northern islands in the Kvarner Gulf and can be reached via ferry from Rijeka, ...
,
Krk Krk (; it, Veglia; ruo, Krk; dlm, label= Vegliot Dalmatian, Vikla; la, Curicta; grc-gre, Κύρικον, Kyrikon) is a Croatian island in the northern Adriatic Sea, located near Rijeka in the Bay of Kvarner and part of Primorje-Gorski Kot ...
, and
Rab Rab âːb( dlm, Arba, la, Arba, it, Arbe, german: Arbey) is an island in the northern Dalmatia region in Croatia, located just off the northern Croatian coast in the Adriatic Sea. The island is long, has an area of and 9,328 inhabitants (2 ...
. Thomas the Archdeacon narrates that Coloman granted each Dalmatian town its own "charter of liberties" to secure their loyalty. These liberties included the citizens' right to freely elect the bishop of their town and their exemption from any tribute payable to the monarch. Following his conquest of Dalmatia, Coloman assumed a new title"King of Hungary, Croatia and Dalmatia"which was first recorded in 1108.


Family affairs (1105–1113)

Coloman had his four-year-old son
Stephen Stephen or Steven is a common English first name. It is particularly significant to Christians, as it belonged to Saint Stephen ( grc-gre, Στέφανος ), an early disciple and deacon who, according to the Book of Acts, was stoned to death; ...
crowned in 1105, which caused Álmos to openly rebel against the king. The duke left Hungary and sought the assistance of Emperor HenryIV. Having realized that the emperor, who was facing a rebellion led by his own son, could not help him, Álmos returned to Hungary in 1106, but then fled to his brother-in-law, Boleslaw III of Poland. With Polish assistance he captured the fortress of
Abaújvár Abaújvár is a village in northeastern Hungary, next to the Slovak border. It lies northeast of Miskolc, and 18 km south of Košice (Kassa), Slovakia. History In addition to Gyöngyöspata in Heves County, from the 11th–14th centuries ...
in Hungary. Coloman had a meeting with BoleslawIII, and the two monarchs "vowed perpetual friendship and brotherhood". Without the Polish monarch's support, Álmos was forced to yield to Coloman. Coloman sent envoys to the Council of Guastalla, which had been convoked by
Pope Paschal II Pope Paschal II ( la, Paschalis II; 1050  1055 – 21 January 1118), born Ranierius, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 13 August 1099 to his death in 1118. A monk of the Abbey of Cluny, he was cre ...
. In October 1106 the envoys solemnly informed the pope of their king's renunciation of his royal prerogative to appoint the prelates of his realms. According to historians Ferenc Makk and Márta Font, without this declaration the Holy See would not have acknowledged Coloman's conquest of Dalmatia. During the civil war between BoleslawIII and his brother
Zbigniew Zbigniew () is a Polish masculine given name, originally Zbygniew . This West Slavic name is derived from the Polish elements ''Zby-'' (from ''zbyć, zbyć się, or pozbyć się'', meaning "to dispel", "to get rid of") and ''gniew'', meaning "ange ...
, Coloman intervened on the former's behalf and helped him overcome the latter's army in
Mazovia Mazovia or Masovia ( pl, Mazowsze) is a historical region in mid-north-eastern Poland. It spans the North European Plain, roughly between Łódź and Białystok, with Warsaw being the unofficial capital and largest city. Throughout the centurie ...
in 1107. Coloman also sent Hungarian reinforcements to the Byzantine Emperor AlexiosI Komnenos against
Bohemond I of Antioch Bohemond I of Antioch (5 or 7 March 1111), also known as Bohemond of Taranto, was the prince of Taranto from 1089 to 1111 and the prince of Antioch from 1098 to 1111. He was a leader of the First Crusade, leading a contingent of Normans on the q ...
, who had invaded Byzantine territories in October 1107. After suffering a sound defeat, Bohemond withdrew his troops and acknowledged the emperor's suzerainty over the
Principality of Antioch The Principality of Antioch was one of the crusader states created during the First Crusade which included parts of modern-day Turkey and Syria. The principality was much smaller than the County of Edessa or the Kingdom of Jerusalem. It extende ...
in the
Treaty of Devol The Treaty of Devol ( el, συνθήκη της Δεαβόλεως) was an agreement made in 1108 between Bohemond I of Antioch and Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos, in the wake of the First Crusade. It is named after the Byzantine fortress of ...
in 1108. In 1107 or 1108 Álmos made a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. Coloman decided to take advantage of his absence and seized his duchy. Although Álmos was allowed to keep his own private property, the annexation of his duchy secured Coloman's authority in the whole kingdom. After returning from the Holy Land, Álmos set up a monastery at
Dömös Dömös is a village in Komárom-Esztergom County in Hungary. Setting, geography Dömös is located on the right side of the Danube, 16 km from Esztergom and 45 km from Budapest. The also beautiful town, Visegrád is located 5 km ...
. On the occasion of its consecration, at which Coloman was also present, Álmos wasfalsely, according to the ''Illuminated Chronicle''accused of trying to assassinate the monarch. Coloman had his brother arrested, but "the most reverend bishops and other well-disposed dignitaries" intervened on Álmos's behalf and "thus reconciliation was solemnly sworn" between the king and his brother. Álmos left for
Passau Passau (; bar, label=Central Bavarian, Båssa) is a city in Lower Bavaria, Germany, also known as the Dreiflüssestadt ("City of Three Rivers") as the river Danube is joined by the Inn from the south and the Ilz from the north. Passau's popu ...
to meet HenryV of Germany. Upon Álmos's request, HenryV invaded Hungary and laid siege to
Pressburg Bratislava (, also ; ; german: Preßburg/Pressburg ; hu, Pozsony) is the capital and largest city of Slovakia. Officially, the population of the city is about 475,000; however, it is estimated to be more than 660,000 — approximately 140% of ...
(Bratislava, Slovakia) in September 1108. At the same time, Duke
Svatopluk of Bohemia Svatopluk the Lion ( cz, Svatopluk Olomoucký; died 21 September 1109) was Duke of Bohemia from 1107 until his assassination in 1109. His rule was overshadowed by the fierce conflict around the Bohemian throne in the 12th century. Family A memb ...
, who also supported Álmos, made an incursion into the regions north of the Danube. Coloman's ally BoleslawIII invaded Bohemia, forcing the Czech duke to withdraw. The emperor's attempt to take Pressburg was a total failure, but he persuaded Coloman to forgive Álmos, who was allowed to return to Hungary. In the same year, Coloman visited Dalmatia and confirmed the privileges of Split, Trogir, and Zadar. He returned to Zadar around 1111 and reaffirmed the Dalmatian towns' liberties. The
Zobor Abbey The Zobor Abbey was a Benedictine monastery established at Zobor (today part of Nitra, Slovakia) in the Kingdom of Hungary. The abbey was first mentioned by royal charters issued in 1111 and 1113, during the rule of Coloman, King of Hungary Co ...
received two charters of grant from Coloman in 1111 and 1113. The first diploma mentioned a provost in Nyitra (Nitra, Slovakia), but the second charter referred to the bishop of the same town. According to a scholarly theory, the two documents show that Coloman set up the bishopric at Nyitra between 1111 and 1113. These two royal charters also mention a
Mercurius Mercury (; la, Mercurius ) is a major god in Roman religion and mythology, being one of the 12 Dii Consentes within the ancient Roman pantheon. He is the god of financial gain, commerce, eloquence, messages, communication (including divinati ...
as ''"princeps Ultrasilvanus"'', which implies he was the first
voivode of Transylvania The Voivode of Transylvania (german: Vojwode von Siebenbürgen;Fallenbüchl 1988, p. 77. hu, erdélyi vajda;Zsoldos 2011, p. 36. la, voivoda Transsylvaniae; ro, voievodul Transilvaniei) was the highest-ranking official in Transylvania wit ...
, but he may have been only an important landowner in the province without holding any specific office. In 1112 Coloman made an incursion into Austria. He either wanted to take revenge for LeopoldIII of Austria's participation in the 1108 German campaign against Hungary, or simply to seize booty. In 1112 Colomanwho had been widowedmarried Euphemia of Kiev, a daughter of
Vladimir Monomakh Vladimir II Monomakh (Old East Slavic: Володимѣръ Мономахъ, ''Volodiměrŭ Monomakhŭ''; uk, Володимир Мономах, translit=Volodymyr Monomakh; russian: Владимир Мономах; Christian name: ''Vasiliy'' ...
,
Prince of Pereyaslavl The Prince of Pereiaslavl was the ''kniaz'' (the ruler or sub-ruler) of the Rus Principality of Pereiaslavl, a lordship based on the city of Pereiaslavl on the Trubezh river and straddling extensive territory to the east in what are now parts of ...
, in 1112. However, as the ''Illuminated Chronicle'' narrated, the queen "was taken in the sin of adultery" in 1113 or 1114. Coloman soon disowned his wife, sending her back to her father.


Last years (1113–1116)

In 1113 Duke Boleslaw III of Poland, who had blinded his rebellious brother Zbigniew, causing his death, "undertook a journey of pilgrimage to St.Gilles and St.Stephen the King", to the
Somogyvár Abbey The Somogyvár Abbey (Szent Egyed Abbey) was a Benedictine monastery established at Somogyvár in the Kingdom of Hungary The Kingdom of Hungary was a monarchy in Central Europe that existed for nearly a millennium, from the Middle Ages into th ...
, and to the king's shrine at Székesfehérvár in Hungary. Coloman received the Polish monarch cordially in Somogyvár. Shortly afterwardsbetween 1113 and 1115Coloman discovered that Álmos was again conspiring to seize the throne. Having lost his patience, the king had Álmos and Álmos's young son
Béla Béla may refer to: * Béla (crater), an elongated lunar crater * Béla (given name), a common Hungarian male given name See also * Bela (disambiguation) * Belá (disambiguation) * Bělá (disambiguation) Bělá, derived from ''bílá'' (''whit ...
blinded to secure a peaceful succession for his own son. On the same occasion, many of his brother's partisans were likewise mutilated. According to one of the two versions of these events recorded in the ''Illuminated Chronicle'', the king even ordered that Béla should be castrated but the soldier who was charged with this task refused to execute the order. The chronicle also states that the child was believed to have died after his blinding, but he was actually kept in a monastery for more than a decade. The fleet of Venice, commanded by Doge
Ordelafo Faliero Ordelafo Faliero de Doni (or Dodoni) (died 1117 in Zadar, Kingdom of Hungary) was the 34th Doge of Venice. Biography He was the son of the 32nd Doge, Vitale Faliero de' Doni. He was a member of the Minor Council (''minor consiglio''), an asse ...
, invaded Dalmatia in August 1115. The Venetians occupied the Dalmatian islands and some of the coastal cities but could not take Zadar and Biograd na Moru. By that time, Coloman was gravely ill. The symptoms recorded in the ''Illuminated Chronicle'' indicate a serious
otitis Otitis is a general term for inflammation or infection, inner ear infection, middle ear infection of the ear, in both humans and other animals. When infection is present, it may be viral or bacterial. When inflammation is present due to fluid buil ...
, which caused
encephalitis Encephalitis is inflammation of the brain. The severity can be variable with symptoms including reduction or alteration in consciousness, headache, fever, confusion, a stiff neck, and vomiting. Complications may include seizures, hallucinations, ...
. Before his death, he "instructed his son and his great men that after his death they should take vengeance on
Russia Russia (, , ), or the Russian Federation, is a List of transcontinental countries, transcontinental country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia, Northern Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the ...
for the injury done to him"''The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle'' (ch. 151.107), p. 133. during his campaign of 1099. Upon his councillor's advice, he also had Álmos, who had taken refuge in the monastery of Dömös, imprisoned. Coloman died on 3 February 1116. According to the ''Illuminated Chronicle'', "divine vengeance made him drink the bitterness of early death" because of his "shedding of innocent blood" when ordering the punishment of Álmos, Béla, and their partisans. He was the first monarch to be buried near the shrine of StephenI in the Székesfehérvár Cathedral.


Family

Coloman's first wife Feliciawho is incorrectly named Busilla in earlier historiographywas the daughter of Count
Roger I of Sicily Roger I ( it, Ruggero I, Arabic: ''رُجار'', ''Rujār''; Maltese: ''Ruġġieru'', – 22 June 1101), nicknamed Roger Bosso and The Great, was a Norman nobleman who became the first Count of Sicily from 1071 to 1101. He was a member of the H ...
. There is scholarly uncertainty whether her mother was the count's first wife Judith of Évreux or his second wife
Eremburga of Mortain Eremburga of Mortain (Eremburge de Mortain) was the second wife of Count Roger I of Sicily and thus the second Sicilian countess. She is very obscure and details of her life are almost unknown to us today. Her father was either William, Count of ...
. The marriage of Coloman and Felicia took place in the spring of 1097. She gave birth to at least three children. According to Font, the eldest child Sophia was born in or before 1100. In 1101 Sophia was followed by twin brothers
Stephen Stephen or Steven is a common English first name. It is particularly significant to Christians, as it belonged to Saint Stephen ( grc-gre, Στέφανος ), an early disciple and deacon who, according to the Book of Acts, was stoned to death; ...
and Ladislaus. Felicia's death preceded that of Ladislaus, who died in 1112. Coloman married his second wife Eufemia in the summer of 1112. Born in 1096 or 1097, she was at least 25 years younger than Coloman. She was the daughter of
Vladimir II Monomakh Vladimir II Monomakh (Old East Slavic: Володимѣръ Мономахъ, ''Volodiměrŭ Monomakhŭ''; uk, Володимир Мономах, translit=Volodymyr Monomakh; russian: Владимир Мономах; Christian name: ''Vasiliy'' ...
, who was Prince of Pereyaslavl at the time of her marriage. After Coloman repudiated her on a charge of adultery, Eufemia fled to Kiev, where she gave birth to a son, Boris, who was never regarded as Coloman's son by his Hungarian relatives. The following family tree presents Coloman's ancestors and some of his relatives who are mentioned in the article. ''*Whether Géza's first or second wife was his children's mother is uncertain.''


Legacy

Late medieval Hungarian chronicles, written under kings descended from Álmos, preserved an unfavorable image of Coloman and his rule. According to the ''Illuminated Chronicle'', many "evil things were done" in Coloman's reign. It states that the saintly LadislausI predicted that Coloman "would shed blood". Modern historiansincluding Font, László Kontler, and Kristó,agree that this negative view was a form of "revenge" by his brother's descendants, who persuaded their chroniclers to emphasize Coloman's failures and to hide his successes. Earlier sources show that he was not always regarded as an evil and unlucky monarch. In 1105 the abbess of a
nunnery A convent is a community of monks, nuns, religious brothers or, sisters or priests. Alternatively, ''convent'' means the building used by the community. The word is particularly used in the Catholic Church, Lutheran churches, and the Anglican C ...
in Zadar stated that Coloman had restored the "peace of the land and the sea". The 13th-century
Roger of Torre Maggiore Roger of Torre Maggiore or Master Roger ( hu, Rogerius mester; 1205 in Torre Maggiore – April 14, 1266 in Split) was an Italian prelate active in the Kingdom of Hungary in the middle of the 13th century. He was archbishop of Split in ...
writes that he was "inscribed in the catalogue of saints" along with the members of the
Árpád dynasty The Árpád dynasty, consisted of the members of the royal House of Árpád (), also known as Árpáds ( hu, Árpádok, hr, Arpadovići). They were the ruling dynasty of the Principality of Hungary in the 9th and 10th centuries and of the Kingd ...
who were actually canonized. Coloman's decrees, which moderated the severity of LadislausI's laws, also contradict the chroniclers' reports of his bloodthirsty nature. The preamble to his decrees described him as "the most Christian King Columban", who is "endowed with the artless grace of a dove and with all discernment of the virtues". Coloman's statesmanship is appreciated in modern historiography. According to Kontler, "it was ... under Coloman's reign that the medieval Hungarian state became consummate and acquired its final structure". Font and Kristó write that Coloman's laws governed his kingdom without modifications for more than a century, even under monarchs hostile towards his memory. Likewise,
coinage Coinage may refer to: * Coins, standardized as currency * Neologism, coinage of a new word * ''COINage'', numismatics magazine * Tin coinage, a tax on refined tin * Protologism, coinage of a seldom used new term See also * Coining (disambiguatio ...
in Hungary followed the pattern established by Coloman's small denars throughout the 12th century. His contemporaries Pope Urban II and Gallus Anonymus were aware of Coloman's "uncommon erudition". According to the chronicles, the Hungarians called him ''Cunues'' or ''Qunwes''the Learned or the Book-Lover"because of the books he owned".''Simon of Kéza: The Deeds of the Hungarians'' (ch. 2.64), pp. 138–139. The ''Illuminated Chronicle'' says that Coloman "read the
canonical hours In the practice of Christianity, canonical hours mark the divisions of the day in terms of fixed times of prayer at regular intervals. A book of hours, chiefly a breviary, normally contains a version of, or selection from, such prayers. In ...
like a bishop" in his books. According to Kristó, Coloman's court was a center of learning and literature. Bishop
Hartvik Hartvik (''Arduin'') was a prelate (most probably the bishop of Győr) in the Kingdom of Hungary under King Coloman the Book-lover. He wrote a new ''Life'' of St Stephen I of Hungary Stephen I, also known as King Saint Stephen ( hu, Szent Is ...
compiled his ''Life of King Stephen of Hungary'' under Coloman. Kristó writes that it is probable that the ''Lesser Legend'' of Saint
Gerard of Csanád Gerard or Gerard Sagredo ( hu, Gellért; it, Gerardo di Sagredo; la, Gerardus; 23 April 977/1000 – 29 August 1046) was the first bishop of Csanád in the Kingdom of Hungary from around 1030 to his death. Most information about his life was p ...
(Cenad, Romania) was also written during Coloman's reign. Historians also attribute the first compilation of Hungarian historical records to his efforts.


References


Sources


Primary sources

* ''Albert of Aachen: ''Historia Ierosolimitana''History of the Journey to Jerusalem'' (Edited and translated by Susan B. Edgington) (2007). Oxford University Press. . * ''Anna Comnena: The Alexiad'' (Translated by E. R. A. Sewter) (1969). Penguin Books. . * ''Archdeacon Thomas of Split: History of the Bishops of Salona and Split'' (Latin text by Olga Perić; edited, translated and annotated by Damir Karbić, Mirjana Matijević Sokol, and James Ross Sweeney) (2006). CEU Press. . * ''Cosmas of Prague: The Chronicle of the Czechs'' (Translated with an introduction and notes by Lisa Wolverton) (2009). The Catholic University of America Press. . * ''Master Roger's Epistle to the Sorrowful Lament upon the Destruction of the Kingdom of Hungary by the Tatars'' (Translated and Annotated by János M. Bak and Martyn Rady) (2010). In: Rady, Martyn; Veszprémy, László; Bak, János M. (2010); ''Anonymus and Master Roger''; CEU Press; . * ''Simon of Kéza: The Deeds of the Hungarians'' (Edited and translated by László Veszprémy and Frank Schaer with a study by Jenő Szűcs) (1999). CEU Press. . * ''The Deeds of God through the Franks''Gesta Dei per Francos, Guibert de Nogent (Translated by Robert Levine) (1997). The Boydell Press. . * ''The Deeds of the Princes of the Poles'' (Translated and annotated by Paul W. Knoll and Frank Schaer with a preface by Thomas N. Bisson) (2003). CEU Press. . * ''The Hungarian Illuminated Chronicle:'' Chronica de Gestis Hungarorum (Edited by Dezső Dercsényi) (1970). Corvina, Taplinger Publishing. . * "The Laws of King Coloman (1095–1116)". In ''The Laws of the Medieval Kingdom of Hungary, 1000–1301'' (Translated and Edited by János M. Bak, György Bónis, James Ross Sweeney with an essay on previous editions by Andor Czizmadia, Second revised edition, In collaboration with Leslie S. Domonkos) (1999). Charles Schlacks, Jr. Publishers. pp. 23–31. . . . . . (ISBN may be misprinted in the book as 88445-29-2). * "The letters of Henry IV: Henry thanks Duke Almus for his support and promises him a reward" (2000). In ''Imperial Lives & Letters of the Eleventh Century'' (Translated by Theodor E. Mommsen and Karl F. Morrison, with a historical introduction and new suggested readings by Karl F. Morrison, edited by Robert L. Benson). Columbia University Press. pp. 52–100. . * ''The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text'' (Translated and edited by Samuel Hazzard Cross and Olgerd P. Sherbowitz-Wetzor) (1953). Medieval Academy of America. .


Secondary sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


External links


Coloman – Encyclopædia Britannica
, - {{DEFAULTSORT:Coloman Of Hungary 1070s births 1116 deaths House of Árpád Kings of Hungary Burials at the Basilica of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary Kings of Croatia Hungarian book and manuscript collectors 11th-century Hungarian people 12th-century Hungarian people