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In the
philosophy of mind Philosophy of mind is a branch of philosophy that studies the ontology and nature of the mind and its relationship with the body. The mind–body problem is a paradigmatic issue in philosophy of mind, although a number of other issues are addre ...
, collective intentionality characterizes the
intentionality ''Intentionality'' is the power of minds to be about something: to represent or to stand for things, properties and states of affairs. Intentionality is primarily ascribed to mental states, like perceptions, beliefs or desires, which is why it ha ...
that occurs when two or more individuals undertake a task together. Examples include two individuals carrying a heavy table up a flight of stairs or dancing a tango. This phenomenon is approached from
psychological Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Psychology includes the study of conscious and unconscious phenomena, including feelings and thoughts. It is an academic discipline of immense scope, crossing the boundaries between t ...
and
normative Normative generally means relating to an evaluative standard. Normativity is the phenomenon in human societies of designating some actions or outcomes as good, desirable, or permissible, and others as bad, undesirable, or impermissible. A norm in ...
perspectives, among others. Prominent philosophers working in the psychological manner are
Raimo Tuomela Raimo Heikki Tuomela (9 October 1940 in Helsinki, Finland – 22 November 2020 in Helsinki) was a Finnish philosopher. Career Tuomela received his first degree of doctor of philosophy in 1968 from the University of Helsinki and the second one i ...
, Kaarlo Miller,
John R. Searle John Rogers Searle (; born July 31, 1932) is an American philosopher widely noted for contributions to the philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, and social philosophy. He began teaching at UC Berkeley in 1959, and was Willis S. and Mari ...
, and Michael E. Bratman.
Margaret Gilbert Margaret Gilbert (born 1942) is a British philosopher best known for her founding contributions to the analytic philosophy of social phenomena. She has also made substantial contributions to other philosophical fields including political philosop ...
takes a normative approach dealing specifically with group formation. David Velleman is also concerned with how groups are formed, but his account lacks the normative element present in Gilbert. The notion that collectives are capable of forming intentions can be found, whether implicitly or explicitly, in literature going back thousands of years. For example, ancient texts such as
Plato Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
's ''Republic''Allen, R.E. 2006. Plato, ''The Republic''. New Haven: Yale University Press. discuss the cooperative determination of laws and social order by the group composed of society as a whole. This theme was later expanded into
social contract In moral and political philosophy Political philosophy or political theory is the philosophical study of government, addressing questions about the nature, scope, and legitimacy of public agents and institutions and the relationships betw ...
theory by Enlightenment-era philosophers such as
Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes ( ; 5/15 April 1588 – 4/14 December 1679) was an English philosopher, considered to be one of the founders of modern political philosophy. Hobbes is best known for his 1651 book ''Leviathan'', in which he expounds an influent ...
Shapiro, Ian. 2010. ''Leviathan: Or the Matter, Forme, and Power of a Common-Wealth Ecclesiasticall and Civill''. New Haven: Yale University Press. and
John Locke John Locke (; 29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "father of liberalism ...
.Laslett, Peter. 1988. ''Two Treatises of Government''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. In the 20th century, the likes of
Wilfrid Sellars Wilfrid Stalker Sellars (May 20, 1912 – July 2, 1989) was an American philosopher and prominent developer of critical realism, who "revolutionized both the content and the method of philosophy in the United States". Life and career His father ...
Sellars, Wilfrid. 1963. "Imperatives, Intentions, and the Logic of 'Ought," ''Morality and the Language of Conduct.'' Detroit: Wayne State University Press. and
Anthony Quinton Anthony Meredith Quinton, Baron Quinton, FBA (25 March 192519 June 2010) was a British political and moral philosopher, metaphysician, and materialist philosopher of mind. He served as President of Trinity College, Oxford from 1978 to 1987; a ...
Quinton, Anthony. 1975. "Social Objects." ''Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society'', Vol. 75, 67–87. noted the existence of "We-Intentions" amid broader discussion of the concept of
intentionality ''Intentionality'' is the power of minds to be about something: to represent or to stand for things, properties and states of affairs. Intentionality is primarily ascribed to mental states, like perceptions, beliefs or desires, which is why it ha ...
, and thus laid the groundwork for the focused philosophical analysis of collective intentionality that began in the late 1980s.


Raimo Tuomela and Kaarlo Miller

Contemporary philosophical discussion of collective intentionality was initiated by
Raimo Tuomela Raimo Heikki Tuomela (9 October 1940 in Helsinki, Finland – 22 November 2020 in Helsinki) was a Finnish philosopher. Career Tuomela received his first degree of doctor of philosophy in 1968 from the University of Helsinki and the second one i ...
and Kaarlo Miller's "We-Intentions".Tuomela, Raimo and K. Miller. 1988. "We-Intentions," ''Philosophical Studies,'' Vol. 53, 367-389. In this paper, Tuomela and Miller assert three conditions necessary for a collective intention, highlighting the importance of beliefs among the agents of the group. After citing examples that are commonly accepted as requiring more than one member to participate (carrying a table upstairs, playing tennis, toasting to a friend, conversing, etc.), they state their criteria: :A member (A) of a collective (G) we-intends to do a group action (X) if and only if: ::1) (A) intends to do their part of X ::2) (A) believes that accomplishing X is possible, and that all members of G intend to do their part towards accomplishing X ::3) (A) believes that all the members of G also believe that accomplishing X is possible. To illustrate this idea, imagine Anne and Bob intend to carry a table (that is far too heavy for one person to carry) upstairs. In order for this action to qualify as a we-intention, Anne first needs to intend to do her part in carrying the table. Next, Anne needs to believe that carrying the table upstairs is possible, and that Bob intends to do his part in carrying. Finally, Anne needs to believe that Bob also believes that carrying the table upstairs is possible. If all of these conditions are met, then Anne and Bob have collective intentions under Tuomela and Miller's criteria.


John Searle

John Searle's 1990 paper, "Collective Intentions and Actions" offers another interpretation of collective action. In contrast to Tuomela and Miller, Searle claims that collective intentionality is a "primitive phenomenon, which cannot be analyzed as the summation of individual intentional behavior".Searle, John. 1990. "Collective Intentions and Actions," ''Intentions in Communication.'' Cambridge: MIT Press, 401-415. He exemplifies the fundamental distinction between "I-intentions" and "We-intentions" by comparing the hypothetical case of a set of picnickers and a dance troupe. During a rainstorm, each picnicker ''spontaneously'' runs for cover. On the other hand, the members of the dance troupe run for cover ''as part of a preconceived routine''. Searle claims that the picnickers, whose intentions are individually oriented and simply happen to coincide, do not display collective intentionality, while members of the dance troupe do, because they deliberately cooperate with one another. Searle's rebuttal to Tuomela and Miller's account begins with a counterexample involving a group of business school graduates who intend to pursue their own selfish interests, but believe that by doing so, they will indirectly serve humanity. These young businessmen believe that their fellow graduates will do likewise, but do not actively ''cooperate'' with one another in pursuing their goals. Searle holds that this example fulfills all of Tuomela and Miller's criteria for collective intentionality. However, he claims that collective intentionality does not actually exist in such a situation unless the graduates have organized and formed an explicit ''pact'' with one another to serve humanity through self-interested action. :He proceeds to specify two criteria that must be satisfied by any proper account of collective intentionality: ::(1) It "must be consistent with the fact that society consists of nothing but individuals." ::(2) It must take into account that any individual's intentions are independent of "the fact of whether or not he is getting things right." Although a "we-intention" is always held by an individual, it must make fundamental reference to a collective formed in conjunction with the other individual(s). For instance, two individuals who, while sharing the labor of hollandaise-sauce production, each believe the proposition "''We'' are making hollandaise sauce", have formed a collective intention. This would not exist if they only held beliefs to the effect of "''I'' am stirring", or "''I'' am pouring". It is thus, Searle claims, that collective intentionality is not reducible to individual intentionality.


Michael Bratman

Michael Bratman's 1992 paper "Shared Cooperative Activity", contends that shared cooperative activity (SCA) can be reduced to "I-intentions". In other words, just as an individual can plan to act by themself, that same individual can also plan for a group to act. With this in mind, he presents three characteristics of shared cooperative activity: ::(1) Each participant must be mutually responsive to the intentions and actions of the others, ::(2) The participants must each be committed to the joint activity, ::(3) The participants must each be committed to supporting the efforts of the others. One aspect of Bratman's argument that supports these criteria is the idea of meshing subplans. Bratman claims that in a shared cooperative activity, individuals' secondary plans do not need to be the same, but they cannot conflict. For example, consider his example of two people who intend to paint a house together. Let us call these two people Alice and Bill. Suppose Alice wants to paint the house red and Bill wants to paint the house blue. Both are aware that their subplans conflict, and that the other is aware of it as well. Bratman argues that even if Alice and Bill do end up painting the house together, they do not have a shared cooperative activity, because their subplans are in conflict. Furthermore, each participant must also be committed to having subplans that mesh. Without this commitment, participants might disregard others' subplans, leading to a lack of cooperation. However, he additionally claims that their subplans need not be identical. For instance, suppose Alice wants to use an inexpensive paint and Bill wants paint from a specific hardware store. In this case, there is a way that both subplans can achieved: they could buy an inexpensive paint from Bill's store of choice. The details of Bratman's view are as follows: :For a cooperatively neutral action, our doing an action J is an SCA if and only if: ::1) We do J (in a way that could involve cooperation, but does not have to) ::2) It is common knowledge between us that we are both committed to meshing subplans and ::3) (B) leads to (A) by way of mutual responsiveness (in the pursuit of completing our action) of intention and in action.


Responses to Bratman

One work associated with Bratman is Facundo Alonso's "Shared Intention, Reliance, and Interpersonal Obligations".Alonso, Facundo M. 2009. "Shared Intention, Reliance, and Interpersonal Obligation," ''Ethics'', Vol. 119, No. 3, 444-475. Alonso contends that shared intention is a basis for interpersonal obligation. He begins the paper by asserting characteristics of joint action, which do not include multiple agents acting individually or factors of body movements, but instead are shared or collective intentions to act. Alonso distinguishes the normative theory supplied by Gilbert and the descriptive theory supplied by Bratman. Whereas Bratman focuses on intents, Alonso is also careful to point out Tuomela and Miller's focus on action to describe the roots of joint action. Alonso attempts to compromise both views by taking a path where joint action is not necessarily a normative or descriptive case. He argues for a system built off Bratman's that can take place in a descriptive nature addressed by Margaret Gilbert. Stephen Butterfill offers another response to Bratman's view. He argues that Bratman's account is unable to explain simple interactions between agents. For example, Butterfill states that Bratman cannot explain cooperative actions between very young children, who do not yet have an understanding of other minds.


Margaret Gilbert

Whereas Bratman argues for a descriptive account of collective intentionality, other authors have taken a
normative Normative generally means relating to an evaluative standard. Normativity is the phenomenon in human societies of designating some actions or outcomes as good, desirable, or permissible, and others as bad, undesirable, or impermissible. A norm in ...
approach.
Margaret Gilbert Margaret Gilbert (born 1942) is a British philosopher best known for her founding contributions to the analytic philosophy of social phenomena. She has also made substantial contributions to other philosophical fields including political philosop ...
in "Walking Together: A Paradigmatic Social Phenomena", sets the conditions for people entering, enduring, and exiting acts of collective intentionality. Gilbert asserts that social groups in general can be defined by something as simple as two people walking together. In her analysis the basic conditions for collective intentions that must be satisfied are as follows: ::(1) People must know they are entering into an agreement by communicating it clearly (even if they are coerced). Gilbert states that this act of agreement is sufficient to set a goal for a group. Furthermore, the agreement groups the agents who comprise the group into a plural subject. ::(2) The agreement implies that each member is obligated to completing the final goal. ::(3) Because of this implied obligation, any and all members may rebuke any one else who fails to do their part towards the completion of the goal. The "
right Rights are law, legal, social, or ethics, ethical principles of Liberty, freedom or entitlement; that is, rights are the fundamental normative rules about what is allowed of people or owed to people according to some legal system, social convent ...
to rebuke" is stated as a necessary feature of the group arrangement. This functions as a tool for each member of the group to ensure the goal is accomplished. ::(4) In order to break the agreement there has to be joint consent among all members of the group.


Responses to Gilbert

A number of philosophers have responded to the normative theory of Gilbert with papers that consider obligations, promises and commitments. One of these, Christopher McMahon, argues that Gilbert has observed crucial behavioral phenomena involved in acts of collective intentionality, but has misidentified the psychological dynamics underlying these phenomena. Specifically, he holds that the behaviors characterizing collective intentionality arise not from a set of mutual obligations which facilitate a "right to rebuke" but from the existence of de facto authority, or some kind of social decision-making process. This de facto authority gives one party a right to partially determine another's intentions. Facundo M. Alonso sets conditions for how the normative phenomenon of shared intention can arise. Alonso claims that shared intention involves mutual reliance between participants. He further argues for a cognitive requirement that each member publicly intends the joint activity. Thus, Alonso states, " lations of mutual reliance generate...interpersonal obligations between the participants". As a result, shared intentions generate normative promises that are enforced by mutual reliance and relevant obligation. A. S. Roth offers his own modifications to Gilbert's account of intentionality. He, too, relies on a normative notion to explain collective intentions. Rather than obligations, however, Roth is interested in commitments. Roth enumerates four different types of commitment: participatory, contralateral, executive, and ipsilateral commitments. Roth claims that the contralateral commitments are necessary for joint actions to occur, and that they may have a moral component (though not necessarily). This opposes Gilbert's claim that the obligations found in joint activity have no moral component. Christopher Kutz's work "Acting Together" contests the basis for what is considered a group. When speaking of a group, it becomes common to say "they" did whatever action the group is seen as doing. However, Kutz explains that each person may have varying levels of involvement in their group or their group efforts. He also questions what obligations each member is considered to have to the group and what binds those individuals to their group. To illustrate his objections, Kutz describes two group types: executive and participatory. An "executive" commitment would extend to those members of a group who participate with others of a group only superficially but still carry the name of the group as a title. This includes people working in an office or an assembly line. A "participatory" group is involved directly with the process and end results of an action. Each member is assumed to have at least some knowledge of all of the plans and sub-plans for the actions taken by the group. This opens Kutz to a discussion about who, within the group, may be considered responsible for the actions of the group.


J. David Velleman

J. David Velleman J. David Velleman (born 1952) is Emeritus Professor of Philosophy and Bioethics at New York University and Miller Research Professor of Philosophy at Johns Hopkins University. He primarily works in the areas of ethics, moral psychology, and rel ...
provides a reaction to
Gilbert Gilbert may refer to: People and fictional characters * Gilbert (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters *Gilbert (surname), including a list of people Places Australia * Gilbert River (Queensland) * Gilbert River (South ...
as well as
Searle Searle may refer to: __NOTOC__ Persons * Searle (surname) * J. Searle Dawley (1877–1949), American film director, producer, screenwriter, stage actor and playwright * Searle Turton (born 1979), Canadian politician Places * Serle, a comune in Lomb ...
. Velleman is concerned with explaining how a group is capable of making a decision, or, as he puts it, "how... several different minds (can) submit themselves to a single making up". To that end, he picks up Gilbert's notion of the 'pool of wills', that is, "a single will forged from the wills of different individuals". However, according to Velleman, Gilbert does not explain how such a thing can be formed. To solve this problem, he turns to a portion of Searle's theory of intentions, namely that an "intention is a
mental representation A mental representation (or cognitive representation), in philosophy of mind, cognitive psychology, neuroscience, and cognitive science, is a hypothetical internal cognitive symbol that represents external reality, or else a mental process that ma ...
that causes behavior by representing itself as causing it". Velleman explains that, since a representation is capable of causing behavior, and
speech acts Speech is a human vocal communication using language. Each language uses phonetic combinations of vowel and consonant sounds that form the sound of its words (that is, all English words sound different from all French words, even if they are th ...
are a form of representation, it is possible for a speech act to cause a behavior. That is, saying a thing can cause one to do that thing. Thus, a speech act can, in itself, be an intention. This is critical for him to make the case that an agent, having made a decision or an intending speech act, can "remain decided". In other words, that agent can continue to intend after the speech act has been accomplished. With this, Velleman shows how an agent can make a decision for a group. If an agent utters a conditional intention, and another agent utters an intention that fulfills the conditions present in the previous utterance, then the second agent has effectively decided the question for the first agent. Thus, a single collective will has been formed from multiple individual wills. Therefore, Velleman argues that collective intention is not the summation of multiple individual intentions, but rather one shared intention. This is accomplished by perceiving intentions as existing outside the mind of an individual and within a verbal statement. The verbal statements have causal power because of the desire to not speak falsely.


Natalie Gold and Robert Sugden

Collective intentionality has also been approached in light of economic theories, including
game theory Game theory is the study of mathematical models of strategic interactions among rational agents. Myerson, Roger B. (1991). ''Game Theory: Analysis of Conflict,'' Harvard University Press, p.&nbs1 Chapter-preview links, ppvii–xi It has appli ...
. According to Natalie Gold and
Robert Sugden Robert Sugden (also Sugden-Dingle) is a fictional character from the British ITV soap opera ''Emmerdale''. The character originally appeared on the show regularly between 22 April 1986 and 3 October 2005. During that time he was first played ...
, efforts to define collective intentions as individual intentions and related beliefs (such as those of Tuomela & Miller and
Michael Bratman Michael E. Bratman (born July 25, 1945) is an American philosopher who is Durfee Professor in the School of Humanities & Sciences and Professor of Philosophy at Stanford University. Education and career Bratman graduated from Haverford Colle ...
) fail because they allow obviously non-cooperative actions to be counted as cooperative. For example, in many simple games analyzed by game theory, the players are counted as acting jointly when they achieve the
Nash equilibrium In game theory, the Nash equilibrium, named after the mathematician John Nash, is the most common way to define the solution of a non-cooperative game involving two or more players. In a Nash equilibrium, each player is assumed to know the equili ...
, even though that equilibrium state is neither optimal nor achieved cooperatively. In the
prisoner's dilemma The Prisoner's Dilemma is an example of a game analyzed in game theory. It is also a thought experiment that challenges two completely rational agents to a dilemma: cooperate with their partner for mutual reward, or betray their partner ("defe ...
, the Nash equilibrium occurs when each player defects against the other, even though they would both do better if they cooperated. The normal game for prisoners' dilemma is shown below: Standard
game theory Game theory is the study of mathematical models of strategic interactions among rational agents. Myerson, Roger B. (1991). ''Game Theory: Analysis of Conflict,'' Harvard University Press, p.&nbs1 Chapter-preview links, ppvii–xi It has appli ...
bases
rationality Rationality is the quality of being guided by or based on reasons. In this regard, a person acts rationally if they have a good reason for what they do or a belief is rational if it is based on strong evidence. This quality can apply to an abil ...
in individual self-interest, and thus predicts that all
rational agent A rational agent or rational being is a person or entity that always aims to perform optimal actions based on given premises and information. A rational agent can be anything that makes decisions, typically a person, firm, machine, or software. Th ...
s will choose ''defect''. However, as Gold and Sugden note, between 40 and 50 percent of participants in prisoner's dilemma trials instead choose ''cooperate''.Gold and Sugden, 118 They argue that by employing we-reasoning, a team of people can intend and act in rational ways to achieve the outcome they, as a group, desire. Members of a group reason with the goal of achieving not "what is best for me", but "what is best for us". This distinction draws on Searle's claim that "the notion of a we-intention...implies the notion of ''cooperation''".Searle, 406 As a result, if each prisoner recognizes that they belong to a team, they will conclude that cooperation is in the best interest of the group.


See also

*
Collective action Collective action refers to action taken together by a group of people whose goal is to enhance their condition and achieve a common objective. It is a term that has formulations and theories in many areas of the social sciences including psych ...
*
Collective intelligence Collective intelligence (CI) is shared or group intelligence (GI) that emerges from the collaboration, collective efforts, and competition of many individuals and appears in consensus decision making. The term appears in sociobiology, politic ...
* Functionalism * Group mind *
Moral responsibility In philosophy, moral responsibility is the status of morally deserving praise, blame, reward, or punishment for an act or omission in accordance with one's moral obligations. Deciding what (if anything) counts as "morally obligatory" is a princi ...


Notes and references


Further reading

* Addelson, Kathryn.
Subject and Agency
. Using collective intentionality to progress toward a new philosophy of mind * Bandura, Albert. 2006.
Toward a Psychology of Human Agency
" ''Perspectives on Psychological Science'', Vol. 1, No. 2, 164-180 * Becchio, Cristina and Cesare Bertone. 2004.
Wittgenstein running: Neural mechanisms of collective intentionality and we-mode
" ''Consciousness and Cognition'' 13, 123-133. Neural mechanisms of collective intentionality * Bratman, Michael. 1997a. "I Intend that We J", in R. Tuomela and G. Holmstrom-Hintikka (eds.), ''Contemporary Action Theory, vol. 2: Social Action'', Dordrecht: Kluwer, 49–63, reprinted in Bratman 1999: 142–161. * Bratman, Michael. 1997b. "Shared Intention and Mutual Obligation", originally published as "Intention Partagée et Obligation Mutuelle," in ''Les limites de la rationalité'', Vol. 1, J. Dupuy and P. Livet (eds.), 246–66, Paris: Editions La Découverte, J. Proust (trans.). Reprinted in Bratman 1999. * Bratman, Michael. 1999. ''Faces of Intention''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press * Bratman, Michael E. 1999. ''Intention, Plans, and Practical Reason'', Center for the Study of Language and Information * Bratman, Michael. 2007. ''Structures of Agency: Essays'', Oxford University Press * Bratman, Michael. 2009c. "Shared Agency", ''Philosophy of the social sciences : philosophical theory and scientific practice'', C. Mantzavinos (ed.), Cambridge, UK; New York : Cambridge University Press, 41–59 * Davis, Morton D. 1997. ''Game Theory: A Nontechnical Introduction'', Dover Publications * Dubreuil, Benoit. and B. Hardy-Vallee.
Collective Agency: From Intuitions to Mechanisms
" A mechanistic view of collective agency * Gilbert, Margaret. "What Is It for Us to Intend?", in ''Contemporary Action Theory, vol. 2: The Philosophy and Logic of Social Action'', ed. G. Holmstrom-Hintikka and R. Tuomela, 65–85. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Reprinted with minor revisions in Gilbert 2000, 1997 * Gilbert, Margaret. 1999. "Obligation and Joint Commitment", ''Utilitas'' 11, 143–163. Reprinted with minor revisions in Gilbert 2000, 50–70 * Gilbert, Margaret. 2006. ''A Theory of Political Obligation: Membership, Commitment, and the Bonds of Social Society'', Oxford University Press * Gilbert, Margaret. 2008. "Two Approaches to Shared Intention: An Essay in the Philosophy of Social Phenomena", ''Analyze & Kritik'' 30, 483–514 * Gilbert, Margaret. 2009. "Shared Intention and Personal Intention", ''Philosophical Studies'' 144, 167–187 * Ludwig, Kirk. expected publication 2012. "The Ontology of Collective Action," ''From Individual to Collective Intentionality'', S. Chant, F. Hindriks, and G. Preyer (eds.), Oxford University Press, in press * Ludwig, Kirk. 2007.
The Argument from Normative Autonomy for Collective Agents
" ''Journal of Social Philosophy'', 38(3), 410-427 * Ludwig, Kirk. 2007.
Collective Intentional Behavior from the Standpoint of Semantics
" ''Noûs'', 41(3), 355-393 * Ludwig, Kirk. 2007.
Foundations of Social Reality in Collective Intentional Behavior
, ''Intentional Acts and Institutional Facts: Essays on John Searle's Social Ontology'', S. L. Tsohatzidis (ed.), Dordrecht: Springer * McMahon, Christopher. 2001. ''Collective Rationality and Collective Reasoning'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press * Malle, Bertram F, L. J. Moses, and D. A. Baldwin. 2003. ''Intentions and Intentionality: Foundations of Social Cognition'', Bradford Books * Pacheco, Olga and J. Carmo. 2001.
A Role Based Model for the Normative Specification of Organized Collective Agency and Agents Interaction
{dead link, date=August 2017 , bot=InternetArchiveBot , fix-attempted=yes " * Scanlon, Thomas. 1998. ''What We Owe to Each Other''. Cambridge: Harvard University Press * Schmid, Hans Bernhard.
Collective Intentionality: Phenomenological Perspectives
. Examination of collective intentionality through phenomenology * Schmid, Hans Bernhard. 2009. ''Concepts of Sharedness: Essays on Collective Intentionality'', Ontos Verlag * Searle, John R. 1983. ''Intentionality: An Essay in the Philosophy of Mind'', Cambridge University Press; 1st edition * Tomasello, Michael and M. Carpenter. 2007.
Shared Intentionality
" ''Developmental Science'' 10:1, 121-125 * Tuomela, Raimo. 2003. "The We-Mode and the I-Mode", ''Socializing Metaphysics: the Nature of Social Reality'', F. Schmitt (ed.), Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 93–127 * Tuomella, Raimo. 2003.
Collective Acceptance, Social Institutions, and Social Reality
" ''American Journal of Economics and Sociology'', Vol. 62, No. 1 * Tuomela, Raimo. 2007. ''The Philosophy of Sociality: The Shared Point of View'', New York: Oxford University Press * Tuomela, Raimo. 2007. ''The Philosophy of Social Practices: A Collective Acceptance View'', Cambridge University; 1st edition * Velleman, David. 2009. ''The Possibility of Practical Reason'', Scholarly Publishing Office: University of Michigan Library


External links


Collective Intentionality (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

Collective Moral Responsibility (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

Collective Responsibility (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

Game Theory (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

Shared Agency (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

Collective Intentionality National Conference
Social concepts Collectivism Intention