In
historical linguistics
Historical linguistics, also termed diachronic linguistics, is the scientific study of language change over time. Principal concerns of historical linguistics include:
# to describe and account for observed changes in particular languages
# ...
, cognates or lexical cognates are sets of
words in different languages that have been inherited in direct descent from an
etymological ancestor in a
common parent language. Because
language change
Language change is variation over time in a language's features. It is studied in several subfields of linguistics: historical linguistics, sociolinguistics, and evolutionary linguistics. Traditional theories of historical linguistics identify ...
can have radical effects on both the sound and the meaning of a word, cognates may not be obvious, and often it takes rigorous study of historical sources and the application of the
comparative method to establish whether
lexeme
A lexeme () is a unit of lexical meaning that underlies a set of words that are related through inflection. It is a basic abstract unit of meaning, a unit of morphological analysis in linguistics that roughly corresponds to a set of forms t ...
s are cognate or not. Cognates are distinguished from
loanwords
A loanword (also loan word or loan-word) is a word at least partly assimilated from one language (the donor language) into another language. This is in contrast to cognates, which are words in two or more languages that are similar because the ...
, where a word has been borrowed from another language.
The term ''cognate'' derives from the Latin noun ''
cognatus blood relative'.
Characteristics
Cognates need not have the same meaning, which
may have changed as the languages developed independently. For example
English ''
starve'' and
Dutch ''
sterven'' 'to die' or
German ''
sterben'' 'to die' all descend from the same
Proto-Germanic verb, ''
*sterbaną'' 'to die'.
Cognates also do not need to look or sound similar: English ''
father'',
French
French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents
** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
''
père'', and Armenian
հայր (''hayr'') all descend directly from
Proto-Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. Its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages. No direct record of Proto-Indo- ...
''*ph₂tḗr''. An extreme case is Armenian
երկու (''erku'') and English ''
two'', which descend from
Proto-Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. Its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages. No direct record of Proto-Indo- ...
''*dwóh₁''; the sound change ''*dw'' > ''erk'' in Armenian is regular.
An example of cognates from the same
Indo-European root are: ''night'' (
English), ''nicht'' (
Scots
Scots usually refers to something of, from, or related to Scotland, including:
* Scots language, a language of the West Germanic language family native to Scotland
* Scots people, a nation and ethnic group native to Scotland
* Scoti, a Latin na ...
), ''Nacht'' (
German), ''nacht'' (
Dutch,
Frisian), ''nag'' (
Afrikaans
Afrikaans (, ) is a West Germanic language that evolved in the Dutch Cape Colony from the Dutch vernacular of Holland proper (i.e., the Hollandic dialect) used by Dutch, French, and German settlers and their enslaved people. Afrikaans g ...
), ''Naach'' (
Colognian), ''natt'' (
Swedish
Swedish or ' may refer to:
Anything from or related to Sweden, a country in Northern Europe. Or, specifically:
* Swedish language, a North Germanic language spoken primarily in Sweden and Finland
** Swedish alphabet, the official alphabet used by ...
,
Norwegian), ''nat'' (
Danish), ''nátt'' (
Faroese), ''nótt'' (
Icelandic), ''noc'' (
Czech,
Slovak,
Polish), ночь, ''noch'' (
Russian), ноќ, ''noć'' (
Macedonian
Macedonian most often refers to someone or something from or related to Macedonia.
Macedonian(s) may specifically refer to:
People Modern
* Macedonians (ethnic group), a nation and a South Slavic ethnic group primarily associated with North M ...
), нощ, ''nosht'' (
Bulgarian), ''ніч'', ''nich'' (
Ukrainian), ''ноч'', ''noch''/''noč'' (
Belarusian
Belarusian may refer to:
* Something of, or related to Belarus
* Belarusians, people from Belarus, or of Belarusian descent
* A citizen of Belarus, see Demographics of Belarus
* Belarusian language
* Belarusian culture
* Belarusian cuisine
* Byelor ...
), ''noč'' (
Slovene), ''noć'' (
Serbo-Croatian), ''nakts'' (
Latvian), ''naktis'' (
Lithuanian
Lithuanian may refer to:
* Lithuanians
* Lithuanian language
* The country of Lithuania
* Grand Duchy of Lithuania
* Culture of Lithuania
* Lithuanian cuisine
* Lithuanian Jews as often called "Lithuanians" (''Lita'im'' or ''Litvaks'') by other Jew ...
), νύξ, ''nyx'' (
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Dark Ages (), the Archaic p ...
), ''νύχτα'' / ''nychta'' (
Modern Greek), ''nakt-'' (
Sanskrit
Sanskrit (; attributively , ; nominalization, nominally , , ) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cul ...
), ''natë'' (
Albanian), ''nox'', gen. sg. ''noctis'' (
Latin
Latin (, or , ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally a dialect spoken in the lower Tiber area (then known as Latium) around present-day Rome, but through the power ...
), ''nuit'' (
French
French (french: français(e), link=no) may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to France
** French language, which originated in France, and its various dialects and accents
** French people, a nation and ethnic group identified with Franc ...
), ''noche'' (
Spanish), ''nueche'' (
Asturian), ''noite'' (
Portuguese and
Galician), ''notte'' (
Italian), ''nit'' (
Catalan
Catalan may refer to:
Catalonia
From, or related to Catalonia:
* Catalan language, a Romance language
* Catalans, an ethnic group formed by the people from, or with origins in, Northern or southern Catalonia
Places
* 13178 Catalan, asteroid ...
), ''nuet/nit/nueit'' (
Aragonese), ''nuèch'' / ''nuèit'' (
Occitan) and ''noapte'' (
Romanian). These all mean 'night' and derive from the Proto-Indo-European 'night'. The Indo-European languages have hundreds of such cognate sets, though few of them are as neat as this.
The
Arabic
Arabic (, ' ; , ' or ) is a Semitic language spoken primarily across the Arab world.Semitic languages: an international handbook / edited by Stefan Weninger; in collaboration with Geoffrey Khan, Michael P. Streck, Janet C. E.Watson; Walte ...
''salām'', the
Hebrew
Hebrew (; ; ) is a Northwest Semitic language of the Afroasiatic language family. Historically, it is one of the spoken languages of the Israelites and their longest-surviving descendants, the Jews and Samaritans. It was largely preserved ...
''shalom'', the
Assyrian Neo-Aramaic ''shlama'' and the
Amharic ''selam'' 'peace' are cognates, derived from the
Proto-Semitic *šalām- 'peace'.
False cognates
False cognates are pairs of words that appear to have a common origin, but which in fact do not. For example, Latin and German both mean 'to have' and are phonetically similar. However, the words evolved from different
Proto-Indo-European
Proto-Indo-European (PIE) is the reconstructed common ancestor of the Indo-European language family. Its proposed features have been derived by linguistic reconstruction from documented Indo-European languages. No direct record of Proto-Indo- ...
(PIE) roots: , like English ''have'', comes from PIE ''
*kh₂pyé-'' 'to grasp', and has the Latin cognate ''capere'' 'to seize, grasp, capture'. , on the other hand, is from PIE ''*gʰabʰ'' 'to give, to receive', and hence cognate with English ''give'' and German .
Likewise, English ''much'' and Spanish look similar and have a similar meaning, but are not cognates: ''much'' is from Proto-Germanic ''
*mikilaz'' < PIE ''
*meǵ-'' and is from Latin ''multum'' < PIE ''
*mel-''. A true cognate of ''much'' is the archaic Spanish 'big'.
Distinctions
Cognates are distinguished from other kinds of relationships.
*
Loanword
A loanword (also loan word or loan-word) is a word at least partly assimilated from one language (the donor language) into another language. This is in contrast to cognates, which are words in two or more languages that are similar because t ...
s are words borrowed from one language into another, for example English ''beef'' is borrowed from Old French ''boef'' (meaning "ox"). Although they are part of a single etymological stemma, they are not cognates.
*
Doublets are pairs of words in the same language which are derived from a single etymon, which may have similar but distinct meanings and uses. Often one is a loanword and the other is the native form, or they have developed in different dialects and then found themselves together in a modern standard language. For example, Old French ''boef'' is cognate with English ''cow'', so English ''cow'' and ''beef'' are doublets.
*
Translations, or semantic equivalents, are words in two different languages that have similar meanings. They may be cognate, but usually they are not. For example, the German equivalent of the English word ''cow'' is ''Kuh'', which is also cognate, but the French equivalent is ''vache'', which is unrelated.
Related terms
*The
etymon, or ancestor word, is the ultimate source word whence one or more cognates derive. For example, the etymon of both Welsh ''ceffyl'' and Irish ''capall'' would be the Proto-Celtic *''kaballos'' (all meaning ''horse''). Outside of historical linguistics, a parallel term for an etymon is a
root or ''root word''. In this usage however, the analysis is limited to within a single language rather than across separate languages. ''Run'', as such, can be said to be the root of both ''running'' and ''runs'', while ''happy'' would be the root word of such others as ''unhappiness'' or ''happily''.
*A
derivative
In mathematics, the derivative of a function of a real variable measures the sensitivity to change of the function value (output value) with respect to a change in its argument (input value). Derivatives are a fundamental tool of calculus. ...
is any word coming from a particular etymon. Similar to the distinction between ''etymon'' and ''root'' above, a nuanced distinction can sometimes be made between a ''derivative'' and a ''descendant''. ''Descendant'' can be used more narrowly within the context of historical linguistics to emphasize a word inherited across a language barrier. For example, Russian ''мо́ре'' and Polish ''morze'' are both descendants of Proto-Slavic *''moře''. By contrast, within the study of morphological derivation, ''unhappy'', ''happily'', and ''unhappily'' are all derivatives of the word ''happy''.
See also
*
Homology (biology)
*
Indo-European vocabulary
References
External links
{{DEFAULTSORT:Cognate (Etymology)
Historical linguistics
Comparative linguistics