''Close Combat'' is a 1996 real-time

computer wargame A computer wargame is a wargame played on a digital device. Descended from board wargaming, it simulates military conflict at the tactical, operational or strategic level. Computer wargames are both sold commercially for recreational use an ...

developed by

Atomic Games Atomic Games, Inc. was an American video game developer based in Austin, Texas, specializing in wargames. The company was founded by Keith Zabalaoui in 1989, and is best known for developing the ''Close Combat'' series of real-time wargames, as ...

and published by

Microsoft Microsoft Corporation is an American multinational technology corporation producing computer software, consumer electronics, personal computers, and related services headquartered at the Microsoft Redmond campus located in Redmond, Washing ...

. Set during

World War II World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...

, it simulates the conflict between the United States' 29th Infantry Division and Germany's 352nd Infantry Division after the

Invasion of Normandy Operation Overlord was the codename for the Battle of Normandy, the Allied operation that launched the successful invasion of German-occupied Western Europe during World War II. The operation was launched on 6 June 1944 (D-Day) with the Norm ...

. The player controls an

artificially intelligent Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence—perceiving, synthesizing, and inferring information—demonstrated by machines, as opposed to intelligence displayed by animal cognition, animals and human intelligence, humans. Example tasks in ...

army whose behavior is dictated by

psychological model A cognitive model is an approximation of one or more cognitive processes in humans or other animals for the purposes of comprehension and prediction. There are many types of cognitive models, and they can range from box-and-arrow diagrams to a set o ...

s: each soldier makes decisions based on the circumstances of the battlefield and can disobey the player's orders. ''Close Combat'' began production at Atomic Games under publisher

Three-Sixty Pacific Three-Sixty Pacific is an American video game publisher and developer. Founded in the late 1980s by avid wargamers and military history enthusiasts, they were acquired by IntraCorp Entertainment Inc. in 1994. Games They have developed the most ...

in 1992. The following year, Atomic migrated with the project to

Avalon Hill Avalon Hill Games Inc. is a game company that publishes wargames and strategic board games. It has also published miniature wargaming rules, role-playing games and sports simulations. It is a subsidiary of Hasbro, and operates under the company' ...

, as part of Avalon's attempt to bolster its computer game business. It was originally announced as ''Beyond Squad Leader'', a tie-in to Avalon's million-selling ''

Squad Leader ''Squad Leader'' is a tactical level board war game originally published by Avalon Hill in 1977. It was designed by John Hill and simulates on infantry combat in Europe during World War II. One of the most complex war games of its time, ''Squa ...

board wargame A board wargame is a wargame with a set playing surface or board, as opposed to being played on a computer or in a more free-form playing area as in miniatures games. The modern, commercial wargaming hobby (as distinct from military exercises, o ...

franchise. However, the companies' relationship was troubled, and Atomic broke away after a high-profile departure at its publisher. Renaming the project ''Close Combat'', Atomic continued production with Microsoft and ultimately released the game in July 1996. Military psychologist Dr. Steven Silver worked with the team to increase the accuracy of ''Close Combat''s psychological modeling. With sales of 200,000 copies, the game was a commercial success. Critics offered praise to its visuals, and several commended its innovation. Conversely, its slow

scrolling In computer displays, filmmaking, television production, and other kinetic displays, scrolling is sliding text, images or video across a monitor or display, vertically or horizontally. "Scrolling," as such, does not change the layout of the text ...

was often criticized, and some labeled its use of psychological models as a fundamental mistake. The game started the ''Close Combat'' series, which encompassed 17 titles and sold in excess of 5 million copies by 2018. Atomic developed four sequels to ''Close Combat'' by 2000 and later created '' Close Combat: Marines'' for the

United States Marine Corps The United States Marine Corps (USMC), also referred to as the United States Marines, is the maritime land force service branch of the United States Armed Forces responsible for conducting expeditionary and amphibious operations through combi ...

. Following the company's sale to

Destineer Destineer, Inc. was an American umbrella company covering a holding company, a video game publisher, and a video game developer that was based in Minnetonka, Minnesota. The company was founded by Peter Tamte, former executive vice-president of ...

, the franchise has continued at other developers under publisher

Matrix Games Matrix Games is a publisher of PC games, specifically strategy games and wargames. It is based in Ohio, US, and Surrey, UK. Their focus is primarily but not exclusively on wargames and turn-based strategy. The product line-up also includes spac ...

since 2007.

Gameplay

''Close Combat'' is a real-time computer wargame that takes place from a

top-down Top-down may refer to: Arts and entertainment * " Top Down", a 2007 song by Swizz Beatz * "Top Down", a song by Lil Yachty from ''Lil Boat 3'' * "Top Down", a song by Fifth Harmony from ''Reflection'' Science * Top-down reading, is a part of ...

graphical perspective, in contrast to the

isometric The term ''isometric'' comes from the Greek for "having equal measurement". isometric may mean: * Cubic crystal system, also called isometric crystal system * Isometre, a rhythmic technique in music. * "Isometric (Intro)", a song by Madeon from ...

visuals used in strategy games such as '' Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness''. A simulation of short-distance battles during

, ''Close Combat'' recreates the conflict between the United States' 29th Infantry Division and Germany's 352nd Infantry Division in the six weeks after the

. The player is able to control either side and manages

infantry Infantry is a military specialization which engages in ground combat on foot. Infantry generally consists of light infantry, mountain infantry, motorized infantry & mechanized infantry, airborne infantry, air assault infantry, and marine i ...

crew-served weapon A crew-served weapon is any weapon system that is issued to a crew of two or more individuals performing the same or separate tasks to run at maximum operational efficiency, as opposed to an individual-service weapon, which only requires one per ...

s and

armor Armour (British English) or armor (American English; see spelling differences) is a covering used to protect an object, individual, or vehicle from physical injury or damage, especially direct contact weapons or projectiles during combat, or fr ...

via six commands: move, fire, move fast, defend, hide and smoke. Tactics such as cover,

suppression Suppression may refer to: Laws * Suppression of Communism Act *Suppression order a type of censorship where a court rules that certain information cannot be published * Tohunga Suppression Act 1907, an Act of the Parliament of New Zealand aimed ...

and unit positioning are required to win; soldiers are vulnerable in large groups and while

charging Charging may refer to: * Charging (ice hockey), when a player takes more than three steps before checking an opposing player * Battery charger, a device used to put energy into a rechargeable battery * Charging station, a device used for rechargi ...

. The game's battles play out in

bocage Bocage (, ) is a terrain of mixed woodland and pasture characteristic of parts of Northern France, Southern England, Ireland, the Netherlands and Northern Germany, in regions where pastoral farming is the dominant land use. ''Bocage'' may als ...

environments, open plains, and towns such as

Saint-Lô Saint-Lô (, ; br, Sant Lo) is a commune in northwest France, the capital of the Manche department in the region of Normandy.simulated psyche, which influences his actions,

combat readiness readiness is a condition of the armed forces and their constituent units and formations, warships, aircraft, weapon systems or other military technology and equipment to perform during combat military operations, or functions consistent with the ...

, and obedience to the player's commands. Mental and physical combat stresses impact a soldier's behavior and

morale Morale, also known as esprit de corps (), is the capacity of a group's members to maintain belief in an institution or goal, particularly in the face of opposition or hardship. Morale is often referenced by authority figures as a generic value ...

; an exhausted or scared squad may grow reluctant to shoot or move, or may fire inaccurately. A soldier under severe stress can become

shell shock Shell shock is a term coined in World War I by the British psychologist Charles Samuel Myers to describe the type of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) many soldiers were afflicted with during the war (before PTSD was termed). It is a react ...

ed and entirely unable to fight, or enter a berserk rage. Units will often disobey poor or dangerous orders, such as exiting cover without proper defense measures. The game's

artificial intelligence Artificial intelligence (AI) is intelligence—perceiving, synthesizing, and inferring information—demonstrated by machines, as opposed to intelligence displayed by animals and humans. Example tasks in which this is done include speech re ...

(AI) system allows even an unattended squad to continue fighting and using tactics. ''Close Combat'' allows players to fight 39 small-scale confrontations or engage in a long-form

campaign Campaign or The Campaign may refer to: Types of campaigns * Campaign, in agriculture, the period during which sugar beets are harvested and processed *Advertising campaign, a series of advertisement messages that share a single idea and theme * Bl ...

, which extends from the

Normandy landings The Normandy landings were the landing operations and associated airborne operations on Tuesday, 6 June 1944 of the Allied invasion of Normandy in Operation Overlord during World War II. Codenamed Operation Neptune and often referred to as ...

to the

Battle of Saint-Lô The Battle of Saint-Lô is one of the three conflicts in the , which took place between July 7 and 19, 1944, just before Operation Cobra. Saint-Lô had fallen to Germany in 1940, and, after the Invasion of Normandy, the Americans targeted the cit ...

. The 29th Infantry Division wins the campaign by claiming Saint-Lô in under 43 days, while the German side focuses on delaying the United States. Players are given pre-selected forces at the start of each mission, and are scored based on the number of enemy units destroyed and objectives captured at the end. In addition to

single-player A single-player video game is a video game where input from only one player is expected throughout the course of the gaming session. A single-player game is usually a game that can only be played by one person, while "single-player mode" is usuall ...

battles against a computer opponent, the game contains

multiplayer A multiplayer video game is a video game in which more than one person can play in the same game environment at the same time, either locally on the same computing system (couch co-op), on different computing systems via a local area network, or ...

support for up to two players.

Development

Origins

''Close Combat'' began production at

in 1992, while the company was working on the ''

V for Victory ''V for Victory'', or ''V4V'' for short, is a series of turn-based strategy games set during World War II. They were the first releases for Atomic Games who went on to have a long career in the wargame industry. Like earlier computer adaptions ...

'' series under publisher

. It was originally called ''Project X'' and focused on real-time

infantry tactics Infantry tactics are the combination of military concepts and methods used by infantry to achieve tactical objectives during combat. The role of the infantry on the battlefield is, typically, to close with and engage the enemy, and hold territ ...

in a World War II setting. The inspiration for the project, as a real-time wargame, first came when Atomic president Keith Zabalaoui encountered ''

Dune II A dune is a landform composed of wind- or water-driven sand. It typically takes the form of a mound, ridge, or hill. An area with dunes is called a dune system or a dune complex. A large dune complex is called a dune field, while broad, fl ...

''. Dr. Steven Silver, a specialist in

post-traumatic stress disorder Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a mental and behavioral disorder that can develop because of exposure to a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, warfare, traffic collisions, child abuse, domestic violence, or other threats on ...

among military veterans, approached the team with his research into state-trait anxiety during this period. He subsequently helped to develop a psychological modeling system for ''Project X''s soldiers. Zabalaoui later said that the company's more traditional wargames "never really excited" him as a designer, and he noted that the veterans Atomic had consulted for those games "repeatedly" brought up the genre's unrealistic portrayal of soldiers' behavior. TSR's Divine Right Strategy Game

Following a split with Three-Sixty that culminated in a lawsuit for unpaid royalties, Atomic was signed to

s computer game division in 1993 by producer Jim Rose. Initially, Avalon offered the team a chance to create a one-to-one adaptation of the company's ''

. A computer version of ''Squad Leader'' had been considered at Avalon Hill for several years, as the game and its sequel, ''

Advanced Squad Leader ''Advanced Squad Leader'' (ASL) is a tactical wargames, tactical-level board wargame, originally marketed by Avalon Hill Games, that simulates actions of squad sized units in World War II. It is a detailed game system for two or more players (wi ...

'', were commercial successes in board form, with sales over 1 million copies by 1997. However, the complexity of the series had made this idea "too daunting" in the past, according to ''

Computer Gaming World ''Computer Gaming World'' (CGW) was an American computer game magazine published between 1981 and 2006. One of the few magazines of the era to survive the video game crash of 1983, it was sold to Ziff Davis in 1993. It expanded greatly through ...

''s Terry Coleman. After being shown ''Project X'', Avalon Hill chose to adopt and rebrand the game as ''Beyond Squad Leader'', and the Atomic team started developing this project and the ''World at War'' series for their new publisher. This partnership was a key piece of Avalon Hill's effort, led by Rose, to revive its computer game branch in the face of flagging board game sales. Public anticipation for ''Beyond Squad Leader'' was high.

William R. Trotter William R. (Bill) Trotter (July 15, 1943 - February 28, 2018) was an American author and historian. Writings Trotter's work covered a variety of genres and markets. His first published work was "Sibelius and the Tides of Taste" for '' High Fide ...

of ''

PC Gamer US ''PC Gamer'' is a magazine and website founded in the United Kingdom in 1993 devoted to PC gaming and published monthly by Future plc. The magazine has several regional editions, with the UK and US editions becoming the best selling PC games mag ...

'' declared it "perhaps the most eagerly awaited PC wargame ever", thanks in part to the board titles' "fanatical" fanbase. However, Atomic's project was never set to be a literal adaptation of the physical ''Squad Leader'' game. Breaking from its source material, the adaptation focused on simulating the psychology of small groups of soldiers via real-time gameplay. The soldiers' AI dictated much of their behavior beyond the player's control. Zabalaoui explained in 1993 that he hoped to capture the experience of real-world military commanders, who "cannot tell what

heir Inheritance is the practice of receiving private property, titles, debts, entitlements, privileges, rights, and obligations upon the death of an individual. The rules of inheritance differ among societies and have changed over time. Officiall ...

men are going to do in any given situation until it happens". To emphasize this core element, the team automated ''Advanced Squad Leader''s detailed calculations and "focus don what the game is really all about, which is tactics, and on the play of the game rather than looking up rules", according to Zabalaoui. He later noted that his goal was to recreate the spirit of ''Squad Leader'' without adopting its design. Zabalaoui expected ''Beyond Squad Leader''s deviations to prove controversial from the start, and the decision subsequently polarized the wargame community, particularly the biggest fans of the original board series.

With Avalon Hill

''Beyond Squad Leader'' underwent a long and troubled development cycle, and Atomic and Avalon Hill experienced creative friction during the creation of both it and the ''World at War'' games. ''Computer Gaming World'' columnist Alan Emrich wrote in 1995, "To say there was no love lost between ..Jim Rose and Atomic's Keith Zabalaoui would be a gracious understatement." The game was originally announced for a September 1994 release, but ''Computer Gaming World'' reported a rumor in July 1994 that the project had been postponed to early 1995. By April that year, ''PC Gamer US'' estimated that ''Beyond Squad Leader'' was 65% complete and on track for a summer launch. It was ultimately described as

vaporware In the computer industry, vaporware (or vapourware) is a product, typically computer hardware or software, that is announced to the general public but is late or never actually manufactured nor officially cancelled. Use of the word has broade ...

Stephen Poole of

GameSpot ''GameSpot'' is an American video gaming website that provides news, reviews, previews, downloads, and other information on video games. The site was launched on May 1, 1996, created by Pete Deemer, Vince Broady and Jon Epstein. In addition ...

, while William R. Trotter noted that it "looked like it would ''never'' come out." Rose later complained that Avalon Hill's parent company, Monarch Office Services, was disinterested and "conservative" in allocating funds and distribution to the computer game division. He argued that the lack of support led to an unnecessarily slow development cycle for ''Beyond Squad Leader''. WW2_Marine_after_Eniwetok_assault

By April 1995, ''Beyond Squad Leader''s team size had reached four main programmers, led by coder Steve Mariotti. Roughly 10 team members were ultimately involved in the game. Atomic adopted a relatively loose team structure for the project: Zabalaoui provided the general plan and oversight, while others designed many sections in large part by themselves. Zabalaoui found that this type of delegated work deepened the game and made development more enjoyable. An overriding goal across the team was to attract both mainstream

strategy game A strategy game or strategic game is a game (e.g. a board game) in which the players' uncoerced, and often autonomous, decision-making skills have a high significance in determining the outcome. Almost all strategy games require internal decisio ...

players and hardcore wargamers, the latter of whom were known for being difficult to please. According to Zabalaoui, Atomic tried to combine detailed simulation for hardcore players with accessible audiovisuals and a streamlined interface. Historical research for the project continued through the planning stage and into production. Collaborating with Dr. Steven Silver, Atomic gave each soldier an individual anxiety index based on tiredness, preparedness, combat experience, past successes, and other factors. According to T. Liam McDonald of ''

boot A boot is a type of footwear. Most boots mainly cover the foot and the ankle, while some also cover some part of the lower calf. Some boots extend up the leg, sometimes as far as the knee or even the hip. Most boots have a heel that is cle ...

'', these factors were reduced to numbers and incorporated into "probability tables" that determine soldiers' actions and change in response to events during play. Alongside the soldiers' individual psychological models, Atomic designed a model for a squad's overall anxiety; programmer John Anderson explained that "the influence of heteam and how that team reacts as a unit makes a huge difference as to whether an individual soldier will actually obey norder." Two complementary algorithms, tactical (TAI) and strategic (SAI), power the game's AI system. While TAI controls psychological modeling and low-level action, SAI "is constantly analyzing the battlefield for enemy troops and keeping tabs on the big picture", Zabalaoui said. The game ultimately grew to 2,000

source lines of code Source lines of code (SLOC), also known as lines of code (LOC), is a software metric used to measure the size of a computer program by counting the number of lines in the text of the program's source code. SLOC is typically used to predict the am ...

that relate to psychological modeling, and more

CPU time CPU time (or process time) is the amount of time for which a central processing unit (CPU) was used for processing instructions of a computer program or operating system, as opposed to elapsed time, which includes for example, waiting for input ...

was allocated to its AI simulation than to its visuals. By June 1995, Rose had left Avalon Hill to found

TalonSoft TalonSoft, Inc. was an American video game developer and publisher based in Baltimore. History TalonSoft was founded in March 1995, by video game producers Jim Rose and John Davidson. On December 24, 1998, Take-Two Interactive announced that ...

, and ''Beyond Squad Leader'' had entered alpha testing. He felt that the game's limited budget and support intensified after Monarch launched the costly magazine '' Girls' Life'', and he left for TalonSoft as a result. Rose said at the time, "If they'd given me the power and money to do what needed doing, ''Beyond Squad Leader'' would be out by now." Avalon Hill Director of Software Development Bill Levay replied that, while the company's decisions "certainly are conservative", the board and computer game divisions were profitable and their overall situation was "really pretty good".

Switch to Microsoft

Atomic Games split with Avalon Hill in September 1995, and '' D-Day: America Invades'' was the two companies' last game together. According to Emrich, Zabalaoui remarked that this event was "purely a business decision" and that there was no ill will between the companies. While the ''Beyond Squad Leader'' title remained Avalon Hill's property, Atomic owned all other aspects of the project and chose to continue development under a new title. At the time, Zabalaoui told Trotter that a large company had recently approached Atomic over the project. He further remarked, "I can't say at this point what the game will be called, although I personally like ''Close Combat''". By December 1995, the game's publisher was announced as

; Atomic was the first developer contracted in Microsoft's wider push into strategy games, which later included

Ensemble Studios Ensemble Studios was an American video game developer. It was founded by Tony Goodman in 1994 and incorporated the following year. It borrowed the name of Ensemble Corporation, a consulting firm founded by Goodman in 1990. It was acquired by M ...

. According to Zabalaoui, the project's real-time nature and psychological modeling had attracted the publisher, which at the time was seeking "developers with a good track record who could help get them established." Atomic Games was nearly bankrupt, and the deal saved the company. ''Beyond Squad Leader'' was ultimately renamed ''Close Combat'', and Microsoft displayed it at the 1996

Electronic Entertainment Expo E3 (short for Electronic Entertainment Expo or Electronic Entertainment Experience in 2021) is a trade event for the video game industry. The Entertainment Software Association (ESA) organizes and presents E3, which many developers, publisher ...

(E3) in May. After more than three years of development, ''Close Combat'' was completed in June 1996. It was originally set for release on July 23, with an expected price point of $40, but certain stores made it available at that price by July 7.

Reception

''Close Combat'' was commercially successful. Upon its release, it became the United States' 13th-best-selling computer game of July 1996, according to market research firm

PC Data PC Data was an American market research and point of sale tracking firm founded in 1991 and based in Reston, Virginia. Its founder, Ann Stephens, had worked previously as the head researcher for the Software Publishers Association. Initially, th ...

. ''

Next Generation Next Generation or Next-Generation may refer to: Publications and literature * ''Next Generation'' (magazine), video game magazine that was made by the now defunct Imagine Media publishing company * Next Generation poets (2004), list of young ...

'' reported that it was among Microsoft's "most successful titles" as of March 1997. The game achieved global sales of roughly 200,000 copies by early 1999 and attracted a younger demographic than Atomic's past games. Zabalaoui said that the team was "very pleased" with its commercial performance, and that it had outsold their earlier efforts by around ten to one. However, he noted that it was "frustrating to see ''Close Combat'' sell only 200,000 units when other RTS titles sell 5 times that or more." The reviewer for ''

Computer Games Strategy Plus ''Computer Games Magazine'' was a monthly computer and console gaming print magazine, founded in October 1988 as the United Kingdom publication ''Games International''. During its history, it was known variously as ''Strategy Plus'' (October 1 ...

'', Steve Wartofsky, hailed ''Close Combat'' as an intuitive combat simulation akin to ''

SimCity 2000 ''SimCity 2000'' is a City-building game, city-building Simulation game, simulation video game jointly developed by Will Wright (game designer), Will Wright and Fred Haslam (game designer), Fred Haslam of Maxis. It is the successor to ''SimCity ( ...

''. He praised its graphics and streamlined quality and called its in-game documentation "wonderful". The magazine later nominated ''Close Combat'' as its pick for the best wargame of 1996, but ultimately gave the prize to that year's '' Battleground'' games: ''Shiloh'', ''Antietam'', and ''Waterloo''. In ''

'', Patrick C. Miller wrote that the game "looks, sounds and plays like nothing else", and considered it a flawed success. Its originality and tactical realism received high marks, but he heavily criticized its limited documentation, in contrast to Wartofsky's view. This issue was compounded by its unresponsive controls and slow scrolling. While Wartofsky praised ''Close Combat''s stripped-down quality as "focus", including its small-scale campaign and lack of a level editor, Miller considered these signs of the product's shallowness. ''Close Combat''s "focus is too narrow, its depth too limited", he argued. ''

''s reviewer echoed Miller's criticism of the jerky scrolling, but disagreed with his overall positive assessment and labeled the game "a serious Microsoft misfire." The writer found its AI system fundamentally flawed and remarked that, while allowing troops to disobey orders is interesting in theory, in practice it makes the game frustrating and unfair. Michael E. Ryan of ''

PC Magazine ''PC Magazine'' (shortened as ''PCMag'') is an American computer magazine published by Ziff Davis. A print edition was published from 1982 to January 2009. Publication of online editions started in late 1994 and have continued to the present d ...

'' shared ''Next Generation''s negative view of the game, despite echoing Miller's and Wartofsky's praise for its visuals. He considered the troop AI questionable and disliked the abundance of on-screen data. "We immediately found ourselves longing for the relative simplicity of ''

Command & Conquer ''Command & Conquer'' (''C&C'') is a real-time strategy (RTS) video game franchise, first developed by Westwood Studios. The first game was one of the earliest of the RTS genre, itself based on Westwood Studios' influential strategy game ''Dune I ...

''", wrote Ryan. Conversely, Andrew Wright called ''Close Combat'' "a big step forward for wargamers" in ''

PC Zone ''PC Zone'', founded in 1993, was the first magazine dedicated to games for IBM-compatible personal computers to be published in the United Kingdom. Earlier PC magazines such as ''PC Leisure'', ''PC Format'' and ''PC Plus'' had covered games but ...

'', despite its scrolling issues. For him, it was an effective compromise between ''Command & Conquer'' and the complexity of traditional wargaming. Although again noting the "sluggish" scrolling, ''

PC Games A personal computer game, also known as a PC game or computer game, is a type of video game played on a personal computer (PC) rather than a video game console or arcade machine. Its defining characteristics include: more diverse and user-dete ...

''s Andrew Miller agreed with Wright that ''Close Combat'' represented a new plateau for computer wargames and held its audiovisuals in particularly high regard. Like the writer for ''Next Generation'', however, he criticized the visuals for being difficult to read: he noted, "I often mistook the American soldiers for shrubs". In 1997, the editors of ''

'' presented ''Close Combat'' with their 1996 "Best Wargame" award and remarked that its developers had "broken away from the long-established, turn-based models of the past". It was also nominated in this category by ''Computer Game Entertainment'', but lost the prize to ''

Tigers on the Prowl 2 ''Tigers on the Prowl 2'' is computer wargame released in 1996 by HPS Simulations. It is the sequel to '' Tigers on the Prowl''. Gameplay ''Tigers on the Prowl 2'' is a World War II tactical wargame. Maps are about 3 x 7 km. One hex represents 1 ...

''. ''PC Gamer'' soon named ''Close Combat'' the 46th-best computer game ever released, and hailed it as "a radical leap forward for wargames, one of the most predictable and staid of PC game genres."

Legacy

Early sequels

''Close Combat'' was the first game in the long-running ''Close Combat'' series, which contained 17 entries and sold above 5 million units by 2018. Its direct sequel, '' Close Combat: A Bridge Too Far'', followed in October 1997. Developed by Atomic Games and published again by Microsoft, the game was a commercial success, with sales equal to those of its predecessor. Following the release of '' Close Combat III: The Russian Front'' in December 1998, Microsoft opted to discontinue the ''Close Combat'' franchise. While all three games had been profitable, Marc Dultz of

CNET Gamecenter ''CNET'' (short for "Computer Network") is an American media website that publishes reviews, news, articles, blogs, podcasts, and videos on technology and consumer electronics globally. ''CNET'' originally produced content for radio and televi ...

reported "indications that the company is now only interested in publishing games that have the potential of selling 250,000 units or more." Up to that point, the company had published the ''Close Combat'' games on a "title to title" basis, according to Keith Zabalaoui. Atomic reacted by splitting from Microsoft and migrating to Mindscape's

Strategic Simulations Strategic Simulations, Inc. (SSI) was a video game developer and video game publisher, publisher with over 100 titles to its credit from its founding in 1979 to its dissolution in 1994. The company was especially noted for its numerous wargames ...

(SSI) label in April 1999, in order to create '' Close Combat IV: Battle of the Bulge'' (1999). Later that year, Zabalaoui said that Microsoft had been "a terrific publisher", and that Atomic had "parted company

ith them The Ith () is a ridge in Germany's Central Uplands which is up to 439 m high. It lies about 40 km southwest of Hanover and, at 22 kilometres, is the longest line of crags in North Germany. Geography Location The Ith is immediatel ...

as friends who may some day work together again." Aerial_Mattel_Headquarters_El_Segundo_May_2012

Atomic began work on a fifth ''Close Combat'' game with SSI in early 2000. However, Mindscape had since been sold to

Mattel Mattel, Inc. ( ) is an American multinational toy manufacturing and entertainment company founded in January 1945 and headquartered in El Segundo, California. The company has presence in 35 countries and territories and sells products in more ...

when that company bought

The Learning Company The Learning Company (TLC) was an educational software company founded in 1980 in Palo Alto, California and headquartered in Fremont, California. The company produced a grade-based line of learning software, edutainment games, and productivity ...

, Mindscape's parent, for $3.5 billion in 1999. As a result, ''Close Combat V'' was published by

Mattel Interactive Mattel Interactive (Known as Mattel Media until 1999) was a video game publisher and software distributor. History Mattel originally founded the company as Mattel Media in February 1996, as an aim to expand into the multimedia unit by producing ...

, a financially unstable company. ''

Computer Games Magazine ''Computer Games Magazine'' was a monthly computer and console gaming print magazine, founded in October 1988 as the United Kingdom publication ''Games International''. During its history, it was known variously as ''Strategy Plus'' (October 1 ...

''s Robert Mayer noted in September 2000 that "the future of this game series is up in the air—Mattel Interactive is perennially on the trading block, and Atomic ... has lost some key staff members in recent months". ''Computer Gaming World'' writer Mark Asher later called Mattel's push into the game industry a "disastrous foray": Mattel's stock dropped and much of its management, including its CEO, was forced to resign. Late in September, Mattel sold The Learning Company at a bargain price to

The Gores Group The Gores Group is a private equity firm specializing in acquiring and partnering with mature and growing businesses. The company was founded in 1987 by its CEO and chairman, Alec Gores, Alec E. Gores. Headquartered in Los Angeles, California, wi ...

. A spokesman for the new managers announced that they expected to make it "profitable within six months." The fifth ''Close Combat'', subtitled '' Invasion: Normandy'', was released in October. Two months later, Atomic was forced to lay off all employees beyond Zabalaoui and two other senior members after The Gores Group canceled the team's in-development ''

Hammer's Slammers ''Hammer's Slammers'' is a 1979 collection of military science fiction short stories by author David Drake. It follows the career of a future mercenary tank regiment called ''Hammer's Slammers'' after their leader, Colonel Alois Hammer. This coll ...

'' game. Trey Walker of

reported at the time, "According to Zabalaoui, Gores exercised its right to cancel the project for 'any reason or no reason at all.' "

Later history

In 2002, two members of the

(USMC) began an effort to

modify Modification may refer to: * Modifications of school work for students with special educational needs * Modifications (genetics), changes in appearance arising from changes in the environment * Posttranslational modifications, changes to protein ...

''Close Combat'' for use as a USMC training tool. They subsequently requested that Atomic create an official version for the Marines. The developer started working on USMC training simulations, and ultimately produced '' Close Combat: Marines'' for the division's training program in 2003. Douglass C. Perry of

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noted that it was the USMC's first-ever game project. Atomic's work on ''Marines'' was then expanded by developer CSO Simtek, in collaboration with the USMC. Following ''Marines'', Atomic worked with

and the USMC on '' Close Combat: First to Fight'', a first-person shooter intended again as a training tool for the military. Announced in April 2004, alongside the strategy title ''Close Combat: Red Phoenix'', ''First to Fight'' was described by Peter Tamte of Destineer as an effort to "combine Destineer's first-person technology with Atomic's military expertise". Destineer ultimately purchased Atomic Games in May 2005, with the stated goal of reviving the ''Close Combat'' strategy franchise. The first five entries in the series had sold above 1.2 million units by that time. In 2006, Destineer licensed the ''Close Combat''

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; the two companies announced plans to remake and update Atomic's early entries in the series. Partnering with CSO Simtek, Matrix began the creation of ''Close Combat: Cross of Iron'', an expanded remake of ''Close Combat III''. The companies decided not to update the first ''Close Combat'', a choice dictated by "the age of the code, and the fact that the series and game engine changed dramatically after the first iteration", according to Simtek's Shaun Wallace. Matrix proceeded to publish ''Cross of Iron'' in 2007. It was followed by ''Modern Tactics'' (2007), ''Wacht am Rhein'' (2008), ''The Longest Day'' (2009) and ''Last Stand Arnhem'' (2010). These titles remade ''Marines'', ''Battle of the Bulge'', ''Invasion Normandy'' and ''A Bridge Too Far'', respectively. After completing the remakes, Matrix worked with

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to release a new ''Close Combat'' entry, ''Panthers in the Fog'', in 2012. Two years later, the companies created ''Gateway to Caen'', the only ''Close Combat'' to be released on the

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platform by that point. Another new title in the series, ''The Bloody First'', was slated for 2018. Atomic's first five ''Close Combat'' entries, including the original ''Close Combat'', were re-released on

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early that year.

References

External links

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