BEAM robotics (from

biology Biology is the scientific study of life and living organisms. It is a broad natural science that encompasses a wide range of fields and unifying principles that explain the structure, function, growth, History of life, origin, evolution, and ...

electronics Electronics is a scientific and engineering discipline that studies and applies the principles of physics to design, create, and operate devices that manipulate electrons and other Electric charge, electrically charged particles. It is a subfield ...

aesthetics Aesthetics (also spelled esthetics) is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of beauty and taste (sociology), taste, which in a broad sense incorporates the philosophy of art.Slater, B. H.Aesthetics ''Internet Encyclopedia of Ph ...

and

mechanics Mechanics () is the area of physics concerned with the relationships between force, matter, and motion among Physical object, physical objects. Forces applied to objects may result in Displacement (vector), displacements, which are changes of ...

) is a style of

robotics Robotics is the interdisciplinary study and practice of the design, construction, operation, and use of robots. Within mechanical engineering, robotics is the design and construction of the physical structures of robots, while in computer s ...

that primarily uses simple analogue circuits, such as comparators, instead of a

microprocessor A microprocessor is a computer processor (computing), processor for which the data processing logic and control is included on a single integrated circuit (IC), or a small number of ICs. The microprocessor contains the arithmetic, logic, a ...

in order to produce an unusually simple design. While not as flexible as microprocessor based robotics, BEAM robotics can be robust and efficient in performing the task for which it was designed. BEAM robots may use a set of the analog circuits, mimicking biological neurons, to facilitate the robot's response to its working environment.

Mechanisms and principles

The basic BEAM principles focus on a stimulus-response based ability within a machine. The underlying

mechanism Mechanism may refer to: *Mechanism (economics), a set of rules for a game designed to achieve a certain outcome **Mechanism design, the study of such mechanisms *Mechanism (engineering), rigid bodies connected by joints in order to accomplish a ...

was invented by Mark W. Tilden where the circuit (or a Nv net of Nv neurons) is used to simulate biological neuron behaviours. Some similar research was previously done by Ed Rietman in 'Experiments In Artificial Neural Networks'. Tilden's circuit is often compared to a

shift register A shift register is a type of digital circuit using a cascade of flip-flop (electronics), flip-flops where the output of one flip-flop is connected to the input of the next. They share a single clock signal, which causes the data stored in the syst ...

, but with several important features making it a useful circuit in a mobile robot. Other rules that are included (and to varying degrees applied): # Use the lowest number possible of electronic elements ( ''"keep it simple"'') #

Recycle ReCycle is a music loop editor designed and developed by Sweden, Swedish software developers Propellerhead Software. It runs on Microsoft Windows and Apple Macintosh based Personal Computer, PCs. The software debuted in 1994. The principal idea ...

and reuse technoscrap # Use

radiant energy In physics, and in particular as measured by radiometry, radiant energy is the energy of electromagnetic radiation, electromagnetic and gravitational radiation. As energy, its SI unit is the joule (J). The quantity of radiant energy may be calcul ...

(such as

solar power Solar power, also known as solar electricity, is the conversion of energy from sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaics (PV) or indirectly using concentrated solar power. Solar panels use the photovoltaic effect to c ...

) There are a large number of BEAM robots designed to use solar power from small solar arrays to power a " Solar Engine" which creates autonomous robots capable of operating under a wide range of lighting conditions. Besides the simple computational layer of Tilden's " Nervous Networks", BEAM has brought a multitude of useful tools to the roboticist's toolbox. The "Solar Engine" circuit, many H-bridge circuits for small motor control,

tactile sensor A tactile sensor is a device that measures information arising from physical interaction with its environment. Tactile sensors are generally modeled after the biological sense of cutaneous receptor, cutaneous touch which is capable of detect ...

designs, and meso-scale (palm-sized) robot construction techniques have been documented and shared by the BEAM community.

BEAM robots

Being focused on "reaction-based" behaviors (as originally inspired by the work of

Rodney Brooks Rodney Allen Brooks (born 30 December 1954) is an Australian robotics, roboticist, Fellow of the Australian Academy of Science, author, and robotics entrepreneur, most known for popularizing the behavior based robotics, actionist approach to ro ...

), BEAM robotics attempts to copy the characteristics and behaviours of biological

organism An organism is any life, living thing that functions as an individual. Such a definition raises more problems than it solves, not least because the concept of an individual is also difficult. Many criteria, few of them widely accepted, have be ...

s, with the ultimate goal of domesticating these "wild" robots. The aesthetics of BEAM robots derive from the principle "

form follows function Form follows function is a principle of design associated with late 19th- and early 20th-century architecture and industrial design in general, which states that the appearance and structure of a building or object ( architectural form) should p ...

" modulated by the particular design choices the builder makes while implementing the desired functionality.

Disputes in the name

Various people have varying ideas about what BEAM actually stands for. The most widely accepted meaning is '' Biology, Electronics, Aesthetics, and Mechanics''. This term originated with Mark Tilden during a discussion at the Ontario Science Centre in 1990. Mark was displaying a selection of his original bots which he had built while working at the University of Waterloo. However, there are many other semi-popular names in use, including: * Biotechnology Ethology Analogy Morphology * Building Evolution Anarchy Modularity

Microcontrollers

Unlike many other types of robots controlled by

microcontroller A microcontroller (MC, uC, or μC) or microcontroller unit (MCU) is a small computer on a single integrated circuit. A microcontroller contains one or more CPUs (processor cores) along with memory and programmable input/output peripherals. Pro ...

s, BEAM robots are built on the principle of using multiple simple behaviours linked directly to sensor systems with little signal conditioning. This design philosophy is closely echoed in the classic book "Vehicles: Experiments in Synthetic Psychology". Through a series of thought experiments, this book explores the development of complex robot behaviours through simple inhibitory and excitory sensor links to the

actuator An actuator is a machine element, component of a machine that produces force, torque, or Displacement (geometry), displacement, when an electrical, Pneumatics, pneumatic or Hydraulic fluid, hydraulic input is supplied to it in a system (called an ...

s. Microcontrollers and

computer programming Computer programming or coding is the composition of sequences of instructions, called computer program, programs, that computers can follow to perform tasks. It involves designing and implementing algorithms, step-by-step specifications of proc ...

are usually not a part of a traditional (aka., "pure" ) BEAM robot due to the very low-level hardware-centric design

philosophy Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...

. There are successful robot designs mating the two technologies. These "hybrids" fulfill a need for robust control systems with the added flexibility of dynamic programming, like the " horse-and-rider"

topology Topology (from the Greek language, Greek words , and ) is the branch of mathematics concerned with the properties of a Mathematical object, geometric object that are preserved under Continuous function, continuous Deformation theory, deformat ...

BEAMbots (e.g. the ScoutWalker 3). 'Horse' behavior is implemented with traditional BEAM technology but a microcontroller based 'rider' can guide that behavior so as to accomplish the goals of the 'rider'.

Types

There are various "''-trope''" BEAMbots, which attempt to achieve a specific goal. Of the series, the phototropes are the most prevalent, as light-seeking would be the most beneficial behaviour for a solar-powered robot. * Audiotropes react to sound sources. ** ''Audiophiles'' go towards sound sources. ** ''Audiophobes'' go away from sound sources. * Phototropes ("light-seekers") react to light sources. ** ''Photophiles'' (also ''Photovores'') go toward light sources. ** ''Photophobes'' go away from light sources. * Radiotropes react to

radio frequency Radio frequency (RF) is the oscillation rate of an alternating electric current or voltage or of a magnetic, electric or electromagnetic field or mechanical system in the frequency range from around to around . This is roughly between the u ...

sources. ** ''Radiophiles'' go toward RF sources. ** ''Radiophobes'' go away from RF sources. * Thermotropes react to heat sources. ** ''Thermophiles'' go toward heat sources. ** ''Thermophobes'' go away from heat sources.

General

BEAMbots have a variety of movements and positioning mechanisms. These include: * ''Sitters'': Unmoving robots that have a physically passive purpose. ** Beacons: Transmit a signal (usually a navigational blip) for other BEAMbots to use. ** Pummers : Display a "light show" or a pattern of sounds. Pummers are often nocturnal robots that store solar energy during the day, then activate during the night. ** Ornaments : A catch-all name for sitters which are not beacons or pummers. Many times, these are mostly

electronic art Electronic art is a form of art that makes use of electronic media. More broadly, it refers to technology and/or electronic media. It is related to information art, new media art, video art, digital art, interactive art, internet art, and electr ...

. * ''Squirmers'': Stationary robots that perform an interesting action (usually by moving some sort of limbs or appendages). ** Magbots: use magnetic fields for their mode of animation. ** Flagwavers: Move a display (or "flag") around at a certain frequency. ** Heads: Pivot and follow some detectable phenomena, such as a light (These are popular in the BEAM community. They can be stand-alone robots, but are more often incorporated into a larger robot.). ** Vibrators: Use a small pager motor with an off-centre weight to shake themselves about. * ''Sliders'': Robots that move by sliding body parts smoothly along a surface while remaining in contact with it. ** Snakes: Move using a horizontal wave motion. ** Earthworms: Move using a

longitudinal wave Longitudinal waves are waves which oscillate in the direction which is parallel to the direction in which the wave travels and displacement of the medium is in the same (or opposite) direction of the wave propagation. Mechanical longitudinal ...

motion. * '' Crawlers'': Robots that move using tracks or by rolling the robot's body with some sort of appendage. The body of the robot is not dragged on the ground. ** Turbots: Roll their entire bodies using their arms or flagella. ** Inchworms: Move part of their bodies ahead, while the rest of the chassis is on the ground. ** Tracked robots: Use tracked wheels, like a

tank A tank is an armoured fighting vehicle intended as a primary offensive weapon in front-line ground combat. Tank designs are a balance of heavy firepower, strong armour, and battlefield mobility provided by tracks and a powerful engine; ...

. * ''Jumpers'': Robots which propel themselves off the ground as a means of locomotion. ** Vibrobots: Produce an irregular shaking motion moving themselves around a surface. ** Springbots: Move forward by bouncing in one particular direction. * ''Rollers'': Robots that move by rolling all or part of their body. ** Symets: Driven using a single motor with its shaft touching the ground, and moves in different directions depending on which of several symmetric contact points around the shaft are touching the ground. ** Solarrollers: Solar-powered cars that use a single motor driving one or more wheels; often designed to complete a fairly short, straight and level course in the shortest amount of time. ** Poppers: Use two motors with separate solar engines; rely on differential sensors to achieve a goal. ** Miniballs: Shift their centre of mass, causing their spherical bodies to roll. * ''Walkers'': Robots that move using legs with differential ground contact. BEAM walkers generally use Nv networks and are not programmed in any way—they walk and respond to terrain via resistive input from their motors. ** Motor Driven: Use motors to move their legs (typically 3 motors or less). ** Muscle Wire Driven: use

Nitinol Nickel titanium, also known as nitinol, is a metal alloy of nickel and titanium, where the two elements are present in roughly equal atomic percentages. Different alloys are named according to the weight percentage of nickel; e.g., nitinol 55 and ...

(nickel -

titanium alloy Titanium alloys are alloys that contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical elements. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness (even at extreme temperatures). They are light in weight, have extraordinary corrosion resistance ...

) wires for their leg actuators. * ''Swimmers'': Also called aquabots or aquavores. Robots that move on or below the surface of a liquid (typically water). ** Boatbots: Operate on the surface of a liquid. ** Subbots: Operate under the surface of a liquid. * ''Fliers'': Robots that move through the air for sustained periods. ** Helicopters: Use a powered rotor to provide both lift and propulsion. ** Planes: Use fixed or flapping wings to generate lift. ** Blimps: Use a neutrally-buoyant balloon for lift. * ''Climbers'': Robot that moves up or down a vertical surface, usually on a track such as a rope or wire.

Applications and current progress

At present, autonomous robots have seen limited commercial application, with some exceptions such as the iRobot Roomba robotic vacuum cleaner and a few lawn-mowing robots. The main practical application of BEAM has been in the rapid prototyping of motion systems and hobby/education applications. Mark Tilden has successfully used BEAM for the prototyping of products for Wow-Wee Robotics, as evidenced by B.I.O.Bug and RoboRaptor. Solarbotics Ltd., Bug'n'Bots, JCM InVentures Inc., and PagerMotors.com have also brought BEAM-related hobby and educational goods to the marketplace. Vex has also developed Hexbugs, tiny BEAM robots. Aspiring BEAM roboticists often have problems with the lack of direct control over "pure" BEAM control circuits. There is ongoing work to evaluate biomorphic techniques that copy natural systems because they seem to have an incredible performance advantage over traditional techniques. There are many examples of how tiny insect brains are capable of far better performance than the most advanced microelectronics. Another barrier to widespread application of BEAM technology is the perceived random nature of the 'nervous network', which requires new techniques to be learned by the builder to successfully diagnose and manipulate the characteristics of the circuitry. A think-tank of international academics meet annually in

Telluride, Colorado Telluride is the county seat and most populous town of San Miguel County, Colorado, San Miguel County in the southwestern portion of the U.S. state of Colorado. The town is a former silver mining camp on the San Miguel River (Colorado), San M ...

to address this issue directly, and until recently, Mark Tilden has been part of this effort (he had to withdraw due to his new commercial commitments with Wow-Wee toys). Having no long-term memory, BEAM robots generally do not learn from past behaviour. However, there has been work in the BEAM community to address this issue. One of the most advanced BEAM robots in this vein is Bruce Robinson's Hider,Bruce Robinson's Hider
/ref> which has an impressive degree of capability for a microprocessor-less design.

Publications

Patents * - ''Method of and Apparatus for Controlling Mechanism of Moving Vehicle or Vehicles'' - Tesla's " telautomaton" patent; First

logic gate A logic gate is a device that performs a Boolean function, a logical operation performed on one or more binary inputs that produces a single binary output. Depending on the context, the term may refer to an ideal logic gate, one that has, for ...

. * - ''Adaptive robotic nervous systems and control circuits therefor'' - Tilden's patent; A self-stabilizing control circuit using pulse delay circuits for controlling the limbs of a limbed robot, and a robot incorporating such a circuit; artificial "neurons". Books and papers * Conrad, James M., and Jonathan W. Mills, "''Stiquito: advanced experiments with a simple and inexpensive robot''", ''The future for nitinol-propelled walking robots'', Mark W. Tilden. Los Alamitos, Calif.,

IEEE Computer Society IEEE Computer Society (commonly known as the Computer Society or CS) is a technical society of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) dedicated to computing, namely the major areas of hardware, software, standards and people ...

Press, c1998. LCCN 96029883 * Tilden, Mark W., and Brosl Hasslacher, "
Living Machines
'".

Los Alamos National Laboratory Los Alamos National Laboratory (often shortened as Los Alamos and LANL) is one of the sixteen research and development Laboratory, laboratories of the United States Department of Energy National Laboratories, United States Department of Energy ...

, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA. * Tilden, Mark W. and Brosl Hasslacher, "
The Design of "Living" Biomech Machines: How low can one go?"
'". Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, NM 87545, USA. * Still, Susanne, and Mark W. Tilden, "
Controller for a four legged walking machine
'". ETH Zuerich, Institute of Neuroinformatics, and Biophysics Division, Los Alamos National Laboratory. * Braitenberg, Valentino, "''Vehicles: Experiments in Synthetic Psychology''", 1984. * Rietman, Ed, "''Experiments In Artificial Neural Networks''", 1988. * Tilden, Mark W., and Brosl Hasslacher, "''Robotics and Autonomous Machines'': ''The Biology and Technology of Intelligent Autonomous Agents''", LANL Paper ID: LA-UR-94-2636, Spring 1995. * Dewdney, A.K. "''Photovores: Intelligent Robots are Constructed From Castoffs''".

Scientific American ''Scientific American'', informally abbreviated ''SciAm'' or sometimes ''SA'', is an American popular science magazine. Many scientists, including Albert Einstein and Nikola Tesla, have contributed articles to it, with more than 150 Nobel Pri ...

Sept 1992, v267, n3, p42(1) * Smit, Michael C., and Mark Tilden, "''Beam Robotics''". Algorithm, Vol. 2, No. 2, March 1991, Pg 15–19. * Hrynkiw, David M., and Tilden, Mark W., "''Junkbots, Bugbots, and Bots on Wheels''", 2002.
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