Background
Wilson studied under psychologist J.P. Guilford as a University of Southern California graduate student after World War II. Guilford had expanded on the work by Louis Leon Thurstone, pioneer in the field of psychometrics, by using factor analysis to assess management skills. Guilford’s work led Wilson to experiment with identifying important management and leadership skills through psychometrics. He eventually developed his Task Cycle assessment tools as an application of Guilford’s statistical approach. Wilson borrowed the concept of multi-rater feedback from the field of psychological assessment, particularly as it was being applied by the US Army during World War II. Managers and leaders, he believed, could learn and improve if they knew how others perceived their skills and behaviors. He also believed that management skills can be learned, like any other skill, through a learning sequence. While Wilson started out calling this system multi-level feedback, others eventually dubbed it 360-degree feedback—the name by which it is now best known. It is also sometimes called multi-rater feedback.Early Developments
He developed the Survey of Management Practices as a teaching tool for his management classes at the University of Bridgeport (Connecticut) Graduate School of Business, where he was the Warner G. Bradford Professor of Management. He had students use the survey in their workplaces. The feedback consisted of survey statements which were rated on a seven-point agree/disagree scale. The statements were strictly limited to observations about behaviors such as planning or communications, avoiding aspects of personality such as sociability or excitability. Each individual would rate him or herself on the same survey as the supervisor, direct reports, and peers who were also providing ratings. By the mid-1970s more companies, includingBusiness
The Clark Wilson Group, formed in 1973, merged witResearch Conclusions
Up to the time of his death, Wilson continued to develop and publish a full range of assessment tools. He published his last book in 2003 at the age of 89. ''How and Why Effective Managers Balance Their Skills'' offers conclusions based on 30 years of research. Wilson summarizes: "After over 30 years of analysis, the problem of most managers is very clear. Too many managers try to exercise control without providing the technical and teambuilding skills needed to achieve their goals". This imbalance derails individuals and undermines organizational performance, he asserted, while the presence of these skills—which can be learned—measurably improves business outcomes.Academic and Professional
Clark Wilson received his A.B. fromReferences
*Clark Kenneth E. and Clark, Miriam B.; ''Choosing to Lead'' *Clark Kenneth E. and Clark, Miriam B.; ''Measures of Leadership'' *Leslie, Jean Brittain and Fleenor, John W.; ''Feedback to Managers'' *Maddox, Taddy (ed.); ''Tests: A Comprehensive Reference for Assessments in Psychology, Education, and Business'', *''Organizational Behavior'', Kreitner and Kinicki, 7th edition, McGraw-Hill IrwinResearch Articles Based on Task Cycle Surveys
*Rosti, Jr., R. T., & Shipper, F. ; "A Study of the Impact of Training in a Management Development Program Based on 360 Feedback"; (1998). ''Journal of Managerial Psychology'', 1998, Volume 13, Number 1, pp. 77–89. *Shipper, F. & Davy, J.; ''Probing Qualitative 360 Feedback for Insights on Leadership Skills and Performance''; (2006, August 11–16). Published in the Proceedings of the Academy of Management, Atlanta, Georgia. *Shipper, F., Davy, J., Hoffman IV, R. C., & Rotondo, D. M.; ''A Cross-Culture Study of Managerial Skills, Employees’ Attitudes and Managerial Performance: New Insights or Back to Basics?'' (2005, August 5–10). Published in the Proceedings of the Academy of Management, Honolulu, Hawaii. *Shipper, F., Hoffman IV, R. C., & Rotondo, D. M. ''Does the 360 Feedback Process Create Actionable Knowledge Equally Across Cultures?'' (2004, August 6–11). Published in the Best Papers Proceedings of the Academy of Management, New Orleans, LA. *Shipper, F., Kincaid, J., Rotondo, D. M., & Hoffman IV, R. C.; "A Cross-Cultural Exploratory Study of the Link between Emotional Intelligence and Managerial Effectiveness"; (2003). ''The International Journal of Organizational Analysis'', Vol. 11, No. 2, pp. 171–191.External links