The Christmas 1994 nor'easter was an intense

cyclone In meteorology, a cyclone () is a large air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure, counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere as viewed from above (opposite to an anti ...

along the

East Coast of the United States The East Coast of the United States, also known as the Eastern Seaboard, the Atlantic Coast, and the Atlantic Seaboard, is the coastline along which the Eastern United States meets the North Atlantic Ocean. The eastern seaboard contains the coa ...

and

Atlantic Canada Atlantic Canada, also called the Atlantic provinces (french: provinces de l'Atlantique), is the region of Eastern Canada comprising the provinces located on the Atlantic coast, excluding Quebec. The four provinces are New Brunswick, Newfoundlan ...

. It developed from an area of low pressure in the southeast Gulf of Mexico near the

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, and moved across the state of Florida. As it entered the warm waters of the

Gulf Stream The Gulf Stream, together with its northern extension the North Atlantic Current, North Atlantic Drift, is a warm and swift Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic ocean current that originates in the Gulf of Mexico and flows through the Straits of Florida a ...

in the Atlantic Ocean, it began to rapidly intensify, exhibiting traits of a

tropical system A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system characterized by a low-pressure center, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Dependi ...

, including the formation of an

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. It attained a pressure of 970 millibars on December 23 and 24, and after moving northward, it came ashore near New York City on Christmas Eve. Because of the uncertain nature of the storm, the

National Hurricane Center The National Hurricane Center (NHC) is the division of the United States' NOAA/National Weather Service responsible for tracking and predicting tropical weather systems between the Prime Meridian and the 140th meridian west poleward to the 3 ...

(NHC) did not classify it as a tropical cyclone. Heavy rain from the developing storm contributed to significant flooding in South Carolina. Much of the rest of the East Coast was affected by high winds, coastal flooding, and

beach erosion Coastal erosion is the loss or displacement of land, or the long-term removal of sediment and rocks along the coastline due to the action of waves, currents, tides, wind-driven water, waterborne ice, or other impacts of storms. The landward ...

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State and New England bore the brunt of the storm; damage was extensive on

Long Island Long Island is a densely populated island in the southeastern region of the U.S. state of New York (state), New York, part of the New York metropolitan area. With over 8 million people, Long Island is the most populous island in the United Sta ...

, and in Connecticut, 130,000 households lost electric power during the storm. Widespread damage and power outages also occurred throughout Rhode Island and Massachusetts, where the storm generated waves along the coast. Because of the warm weather pattern that contributed to the storm's development, precipitation was limited to rain. Two people were killed, and damage amounted to at least $21 million.

Meteorological history

The storm originated in an upper-level low pressure system that moved southeastward from the central

Great Plains The Great Plains (french: Grandes Plaines), sometimes simply "the Plains", is a broad expanse of flatland in North America. It is located west of the Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains, much of it covered in prairie, steppe, an ...

into the

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of the United States. After reaching the southeast Gulf of Mexico, the disturbance underwent cyclogenesis, and the resultant system moved through Florida on December 22 in response to an approaching

trough Trough may refer to: In science * Trough (geology), a long depression less steep than a trench * Trough (meteorology), an elongated region of low atmospheric pressure * Trough (physics), the lowest point on a wave * Trough level (medicine), the l ...

. Forecasters lacked sufficient data to fully assess the cyclone for potential tropical characteristics, and as such, it could not be classified. The same trough that pushed the storm across Florida had moved to the north, allowing for high pressure to develop in the upper levels of the atmosphere. Deemed a "hybrid storm", the cyclone rapidly intensified in warm waters of up to from the Gulf Stream combined with a cold air mass over the United States. The system continued to rapidly intensify while moving within the Gulf Stream; it developed central convection, an unusual trait for an

extratropical cyclone Extratropical cyclones, sometimes called mid-latitude cyclones or wave cyclones, are low-pressure areas which, along with the anticyclones of high-pressure areas, drive the weather over much of the Earth. Extratropical cyclones are capable of ...

, and at one point exhibited an

. Despite these indications of tropical characteristics, it never was identified as tropical. On December 23 and 24, the nor'easter intensified to attain a barometric pressure of . An upper-level low pressure system that developed behind the storm began to intensify and grew to be larger in size than the original disturbance. In an interaction known as the

Fujiwhara effect The Fujiwhara effect, sometimes referred to as the Fujiwara effect, Fujiw(h)ara interaction or binary interaction, is a phenomenon that occurs when two nearby cyclonic vortices move around each other and close the distance between the circulations ...

, the broad circulation of the secondary low swung the primary nor'easter northwestward towards southern New York and New England. The original low passed along the south shore of

, and made landfall near New York City on December 24. Subsequently, it moved over southeastern New York State. On December 25, the system began to rapidly weaken as it moved towards Nova Scotia, before the pair of low pressure systems moved out to sea in tandem in the early hours of December 26.

Effects

Southeast United States

In South Carolina, flooding associated with the cyclone was considered to be the worst since 1943. Over of rainfall was reported, while winds brought down trees and ripped awnings. In addition, the coast suffered the effects of

. Thousands of electric customers in the state lost power. As a result of the heavy rainfall, several dams became overwhelmed by rising waters. Extensive flooding of roads and highways was reported, many of which were closed as a result. Up to of water flooded some homes in the region. Approximately 300 people in Florence County were forced to evacuate because of the flooding, and at least 200 homes were damaged. Two deaths were reported in the state. One woman was killed when her vehicle hydroplaned and struck a tree, and another person drowned after her car was struck by another vehicle. Total damage in South Carolina amounted to at least $4 million. Strong winds occurred along the North Carolina coast. Diamond Shoals reported sustained winds of , and offshore, winds gusted to . On

Wrightsville Beach Wrightsville Beach is a town in New Hanover County, North Carolina, United States. Wrightsville Beach is just east of Wilmington and is part of the Wilmington Metropolitan Statistical Area. The population was 2,477 at the 2010 census. The town co ...

, rough surf eroded an ledge into the beach. On

Carolina Beach Carolina Beach is a beach town in New Hanover County, North Carolina, United States, situated about south of Wilmington International Airport in southeastern coastal North Carolina. As of the 2020 census, the city population was 6,564. It is pa ...

, dunes were breached and some roads, including portions of North Carolina Highway 12, were closed.

Mid-Atlantic

As the primary storm entered New England, the secondary low produced minor coastal flooding in the Tidewater region of Virginia on December 23. Winds of and tides to above normal were reported. In Sandbridge, Virginia Beach, Virginia, a beachfront home collapsed into the sea. Several roads throughout the region suffered minor flooding. Strong winds resulting from the tight pressure gradient between the nor'easter and an area of high pressure located over the United States brought down a few utility poles, which sparked a brush fire on December 24. The fire, quickly spread by the wind, burned a field. The winds brought down several trees. Damage was light in Maryland. Some

sand dunes A dune is a landform composed of wind- or water-driven sand. It typically takes the form of a mound, ridge, or hill. An area with dunes is called a dune system or a dune complex. A large dune complex is called a dune field, while broad, fl ...

and wooden structures were damaged, and above-normal tides occurred. In New Jersey, high winds caused power outages and knocked down trees and power lines. Minor coastal flooding of streets and houses was reported. Otherwise, damage in the state was minor. The storm brought heavy rainfall and high winds to New York State and New York City on December 23 and 24. Gusts of downed hundreds of trees and many power lines on

. Several homes, in addition to many cars, sustained damage. Roughly 112,000 Long Island Lighting Company customers experienced power outages at some point during the storm. As the cyclone progressed northward into New York State, high winds occurred in the Hudson Valley region. Throughout

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, Ulster and Rensselaer Counties, trees, tree limbs, and power lines were downed by the winds. At

Stephentown Stephentown is a town in Rensselaer County, New York, United States. The population was 2,903 at the 2010 census. The town, which was originally Jericho Hallow in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, was renamed for Stephen Van Rensselaer. The town is lo ...

, a gust of was reported. Ulster County suffered substantial impacts, with large trees being uprooted and striking homes. Across eastern New York State, 25,000 households lost power as a result of the nor'easter. On the North Fork of Long Island, in Southold, a seaside home partially collapsed into the water.

New England

In Connecticut, the storm was described as being more significant than anticipated. Gale-force wind gusts, reaching , blew across the state from the northeast and later from the east. Trees, tree limbs, and power lines were downed, causing damage to property and vehicles. The high winds caused widespread power outages, affecting up to 130,000 electric customers. As a result, electric companies sought help from as far as Pennsylvania and Maine to restore electricity. Bruno Ranniello, a spokesman for Northeast Utilities, reported that "We've had outages in virtually every community." In New Haven, the nor'easter ripped three barges from their moorings. One of the barges traveled across the

Long Island Sound Long Island Sound is a marine sound and tidal estuary of the Atlantic Ocean. It lies predominantly between the U.S. state of Connecticut to the north and Long Island in New York to the south. From west to east, the sound stretches from the Eas ...

and ran aground near Port Jefferson, New York. A man in

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was killed indirectly when a tree that was partially downed by the storm fell on him during an attempt to remove it from a relative's yard. Northeast Utilities, which reported the majority of the power outages, estimated storm damage in the state to be about $6–$8 million (1994 USD; $8.8–$11.8 million 2008 USD). Effects were less severe in New Hampshire and Vermont. In southern New Hampshire, a line of thunderstorms produced torrential rainfall, causing flooding on parts of New Hampshire Route 13.

Flash flood A flash flood is a rapid flooding of low-lying areas: washes, rivers, dry lakes and depressions. It may be caused by heavy rain associated with a severe thunderstorm, hurricane, or tropical storm, or by meltwater from ice or snow flowing o ...

ing of several tributaries feeding into the Piscataquog River was reported. In Maine, the storm brought high winds and heavy rain. Along the coast of southern Maine and New Hampshire, beach erosion was reported. Additionally, minor flooding was reported across the region, as a result of heavy

surface runoff Surface runoff (also known as overland flow) is the flow of water occurring on the ground surface when excess rainwater, stormwater, meltwater, or other sources, can no longer sufficiently rapidly infiltrate in the soil. This can occur when th ...

and small ice jams. In Rhode Island, the power outages were the worst since Hurricane Bob of the

1991 Atlantic hurricane season The 1991 Atlantic hurricane season was the first season since 1984 in which no hurricanes developed from tropical waves, which are the source for most North Atlantic tropical cyclones. The hurricane season officially began on June 1, and en ...

. Throughout the state, approximately 40,000 customers were without electric power. As with Massachusetts, downed trees and property damage were widespread. There were many reports of roof shingles being blown off roofs and of damage to gutters. In Warwick, several small boats were damaged after being knocked into other boats. The highest reported wind gust in the state was at Ashaway, Rhode Island. Statewide damage totaled about $5 million. Massachusetts, particularly Cape Cod and

Nantucket Nantucket () is an island about south from Cape Cod. Together with the small islands of Tuckernuck and Muskeget, it constitutes the Town and County of Nantucket, a combined county/town government that is part of the U.S. state of Massachuse ...

, bore the brunt of the nor'easter. Reportedly, wind gusts approached on Cape Cod and, offshore, waves reached . At Walpole, wind gusts peaked at , while on Nantucket gusts of were reported. The winds left 30,000 electric customers without power during the storm, primarily in the eastern part of the state. Power was out for some as long as 48 hours. Property damage was widespread and many trees, signs, and billboards were blown down. A large tent used by the

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was ripped and blown off its foundation. The winds also spread a deadly house fire in North Attleboro. Although not directly related to the storm, it caused seven fatalities. Because tides were low, little coastal flooding occurred. Outside the Prudential Tower Center in Boston, the storm toppled a

Christmas tree A Christmas tree is a decorated tree, usually an evergreen conifer, such as a spruce, pine or fir, or an artificial tree of similar appearance, associated with the celebration of Christmas. The custom was further developed in early modern ...

. Rainfall of was recorded throughout the eastern part of the state, contributing to heavy runoff that washed away a section of a highway. Total damage in Massachusetts was estimated at about $5 million.

References