The practice of Christianity in Korea is marginal
in North Korea, but significant
in South Korea, where it revolves around two of its largest branches,
Protestantism
Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that follows the theological tenets of the Protestant Reformation, a movement that began seeking to reform the Catholic Church from within in the 16th century against what its followers perceived to b ...
and
Catholicism
The Catholic Church, also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.3 billion baptized Catholics worldwide . It is among the world's oldest and largest international institutions, and has played a ...
, accounting for 8.6 million
[According to figures compiled by the South Korean National Statistical Office.] and 5.8 million members, respectively. Catholicism was first introduced during the late
Joseon Dynasty
Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and re ...
period by Confucian scholars who encountered it in China. In 1603,
Yi Gwang-jeong, a Korean diplomat, returned from Beijing carrying several theological books written by
Matteo Ricci
Matteo Ricci, SJ (; la, Mattheus Riccius; 6 October 1552 – 11 May 1610), was an Italians, Italian Society of Jesus, Jesuit Priesthood in the Catholic Church, priest and one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China missions. He create ...
, an Italian
Jesuit
, image = Ihs-logo.svg
, image_size = 175px
, caption = ChristogramOfficial seal of the Jesuits
, abbreviation = SJ
, nickname = Jesuits
, formation =
, founders ...
missionary to
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's most populous country, with a population exceeding 1.4 billion, slightly ahead of India. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and ...
.
[KIM Han-sik, 'The Influence of Christianity', ''Korean Journal'' XXIII, 12, December 1983, p. 5.] He began disseminating the information in the books, and the first seeds of
Christianity
Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.38 billion followers representing one-third of the global pop ...
were sown. In 1758, King
Yeongjo of Joseon
Yeongjo of Joseon (31 October 1694 – 22 April 1776), personal name Yi Geum (Korean language, Korean: 이금, Hanja: 李昑), was the 21st monarch of the Joseon, Joseon dynasty of Korea. He was the second son of Sukjong of Joseon, King Sukjong ...
officially outlawed Catholicism as an "evil practice." Catholicism was reintroduced in 1785 by
Yi Seung-hun
Yi Seung-Hun (1756 – April 8, 1801, ''Ja'': Jasul (子述), ''Ho'': Mancheon, baptismal name Peter) was one of the first Catholic martyrs in Korea.
Biography
He was born in 1756 in Seoul. His father was Soam Yi Dong-uk (蘇巖 李東郁, 17 ...
and since then French and Chinese Catholic priests were invited by the Korean Christians.
Joseon
Joseon (; ; Middle Korean: 됴ᇢ〯션〮 Dyǒw syéon or 됴ᇢ〯션〯 Dyǒw syěon), officially the Great Joseon (; ), was the last dynastic kingdom of Korea, lasting just over 500 years. It was founded by Yi Seong-gye in July 1392 and re ...
royalty saw the new religion as a subversive influence and persecuted its earliest followers in Korea, culminating in the Catholic Persecution of 1866, in which 8,000 Catholics across the country were killed, including nine French missionary priests. The opening of Korea to the outside world in the late nineteenth century brought religious toleration for the remaining Catholics and also introduced Protestantism via American missionaries, beginning in 1884. The first Protestant church in Korea was established by
Seo Sang-ryun
Seo Sang-ryun (, 1848–1926), along with his brother Seo Sang-u (), founded the first Protestant church in Korea in 1884. It was established in the village of Sorae, Hwanghae province, where his uncle lived.
Seo Sang-ryun was involved in the t ...
and the first Protestant missionary to enter Korea was
Horace Newton Allen
Horace Newton Allen (April 23, 1858 – December 11, 1932) was a missionary, physician, and American ambassador to Korea. He was the first Protestant missionary in Korea, arriving there on September 15, 1884.
After treating Min Young-ik, a r ...
, both events occurring in 1884. Horace Allen was a
North Presbyterian missionary who became an American diplomat. He served in Korea until 1905, by which time he had been joined by many others.
[Kim, Sang-Hwan (1996). ]
The impact of early Presbyterian missionary preaching (1884–1920) on the preaching of the Korean church
' (M.A. thesis), Wilfrid Laurier University
Wilfrid Laurier University (commonly referred to as WLU or simply Laurier) is a public university in Ontario, Canada, with campuses in Waterloo, Brantford and Milton. The newer Brantford and Milton campuses are not considered satellite campuses ...
The growth of both denominations was gradual before 1945. In that year, approximately 2% of the population was Christian. Rapid growth ensued after the war, when Korea was freed from Japanese occupation by the Allies: by 1991, 18.4% of the population (8.0 million) was Protestant, and 6.7% (2.5 million) was Catholic. The Catholic Church has increased its membership by 70% in the ten years leading up to 2007. Numerous unorthodox sects, such as the
Unification Church
The Family Federation for World Peace and Unification, widely known as the Unification Church, is a new religious movement, whose members are called Unificationists, or "Moonies". It was officially founded on 1 May 1954 under the name Holy Spi ...
founded in 1954 by
Sun Myung Moon
Sun Myung Moon (; born Yong Myung Moon; 6 January 1920 – 3 September 2012) was a Korean religious leader, also known for his business ventures and support for conservative political causes. A messiah claimant, he was the founder of the Unif ...
, have also developed in Korea.
The influence on education has been decisive, as Christian missionaries started 293 schools and 40 universities including three of the top five academic institutions. Christianity was associated with more widespread education and Western modernization.
[James H. Grayson, ''Korea: A Religious History'' (2002) p 169.] Catholicism and Protestantism are seen as the religion of the middle class, youth, intellectuals, and urbanites, and has been central to South Korea's pursuit of modernity and westernization after the end of
World War II
World War II or the Second World War, often abbreviated as WWII or WW2, was a world war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the vast majority of the world's countries—including all of the great powers—forming two opposin ...
and the
liberation of Korea
The surrender of the Empire of Japan in World War II was announced by Emperor Hirohito on 15 August and formally signed on 2 September 1945, bringing the war's hostilities to a close. By the end of July 1945, the Imperial Japanese Navy ...
.
In the early 21st century, however, the growth of Protestantism has slowed, perhaps due to scandals involving church leadership,
fundamentalism
Fundamentalism is a tendency among certain groups and individuals that is characterized by the application of a strict literal interpretation to scriptures, dogmas, or ideologies, along with a strong belief in the importance of distinguishing ...
and conflict among various sects. Some analysts also attribute this to overly zealous missionary work.
Meanwhile,
Eastern Orthodoxy
Eastern Orthodoxy, also known as Eastern Orthodox Christianity, is one of the three main Branches of Christianity, branches of Chalcedonian Christianity, alongside Catholic Church, Catholicism and Protestantism.
Like the Pentarchy of the first m ...
accounts for about four thousand adherents in South Korea, or 0.005% of the total population.
As of 2010, 29% of the South Korean population is Christian.
The government put the number of Protestant churches at 17,000 and Catholic churches at 3,000. Totaling there are 20,000 Churches.
Cultural significance
Professor James H. Grayson from the School of East Asian Studies at
University of Sheffield
, mottoeng = To discover the causes of things
, established = – University of SheffieldPredecessor institutions:
– Sheffield Medical School – Firth College – Sheffield Technical School – University College of Sheffield
, type = Pu ...
states that Protestantism has been a dynamic force in Korean life, and had a positive influence on other religions. Catholics and Buddhists had to compete for loyalty and attention, and it inspired numerous smaller sects. They adopted many of the methods pioneered by the Protestants. The influence on higher education in Korea has been decisive as the Christians started 293 schools and 40 universities, including 3 of the top 5 academic institutions.
Sukman argues that since 1945, Catholicism and Protestantism has been widely seen by Koreans as the religion of the middle class, youth, intellectuals, urbanites, and modernizers. It has been a powerful force supporting South Korea's pursuit of modernity and westernization, and opposition to the old Japanese colonialism and the communism of North Korea.
Prior to the
Korean War
, date = {{Ubl, 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953 (''de facto'')({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=6, day1=25, year1=1950, month2=7, day2=27, year2=1953), 25 June 1950 – present (''de jure'')({{Age in years, months, weeks a ...
(1950–1953), two-thirds of Korean Christians lived in the North, but most later fled to the South. It is not known exactly how many Christians remain in North Korea today. There is uncertainty about the exact number in South Korea. By the end of the 1960s, there were an estimated half a million Catholics and one million Protestants in South Korea, but during the "Conversion Boom" period ending in the 1980s, the number of Catholics and Protestants increased faster here than in any other country. The 2005 South Korean census showed 29.2 percent of the population identifying as Christian, up from 26.3 percent ten years previously. Catholics tend to be better educated than most other religious groups in South Korea, in the sense that they have a high number of college graduates (50.4%) and
post-graduate
Postgraduate or graduate education refers to academic or professional degrees, certificates, diplomas, or other qualifications pursued by post-secondary students who have earned an undergraduate ( bachelor's) degree.
The organization and stru ...
degrees (11.6%) per capita.
The Presbyterian Church has the highest number of members of any Protestant denomination in South Korea, with close to 20,000 churches affiliated with the two largest Presbyterian denominations in the country. The Orthodox Christianity under the jurisdiction of the
Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople
The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople ( el, Οἰκουμενικὸν Πατριαρχεῖον Κωνσταντινουπόλεως, translit=Oikoumenikón Patriarkhíon Konstantinoupóleos, ; la, Patriarchatus Oecumenicus Constanti ...
is a small minority religion in South Korea with about 4,000 official members in 2013.
South Korea provides the world's second-largest number of Christian missionaries, surpassed only by the United States.
GMS, the missionary body of the "Hapdong" General Assembly of
Presbyterian Church of Korea
Presbyterian Church of Korea (PCK) was a Protestant denomination based in South Korea; it is currently separated into many branches.
History
The first Korean Presbyterian church was founded by Seo Sang-ryun in Hwanghae province in 1884. Short ...
, is the single largest missionary organization in South Korea.
South Korean missionaries have been serving in
10/40 Window
The 10/40 Window is a term coined by Christian missionary strategist and Partners International CEO Luis Bush in 1990 to refer to those regions of the eastern hemisphere, plus the European and African part of the western hemisphere, located betwee ...
nations, which are more hostile to Westerners. In 2000, there were 10,646 South Korean Protestant missionaries in 156 countries, along with an undisclosed number of Catholic missionaries. According to a 2004 article, "South Korea dispatched more than 12,000 missionaries to over 160 countries in comparison to about 46,000 American and 6,000 British missionaries, according to missionary organizations in South Korea and the West". According to a 2007 article, "Korea has 16,000 missionaries working overseas, second only to the US". In 1980, South Korea sent 93 missionaries and by 2009, some 20,000 Korean missionaries.
Aaron Tan, director of the Hong Kong architectural firm called Research Architecture Design, described the night scene of Seoul as "full of glowing Christian crosses".
Growth of Christianity
Appeal in the North
Christianity, especially Catholicism and Protestantism, had a special appeal to Koreans in the North. Between 1440 and 1560, there were migrations to the northern provinces, which were designed to strengthen the border. This created a society of mixed backgrounds without an aristocracy and without long-standing religious institutions. However, it did have a strong and ambitious merchant class, as well as a strong military tradition. Local elites gained administrative positions and adopted Confucian literati lifestyles but were not easy to attain high-level positions. During Japanese colonial rule from 1910 to 1945, the North became the more industrial region of Korea. The area was highly receptive to Catholic and Protestant missionaries in the late nineteenth century, who brought Western knowledge, and established hospitals and Western-style medical care, schools, and a window to the wider world. The middle-class elites sent their sons to the Catholic or Protestant schools. In turn the sons became strong nationalists who considered the United States a rallying point in opposition to Japanese colonial
imperialism
Imperialism is the state policy, practice, or advocacy of extending power and dominion, especially by direct territorial acquisition or by gaining political and economic control of other areas, often through employing hard power (economic and ...
. In a reversal of previous Southern dominance, the North produced many influential figures in Korean history. After 1945,
North Korea
North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and shares borders with China and Russia to the north, at the Yalu River, Y ...
's Soviet-influenced
state policy of atheism as a major facet of
Juche
''Juche'' ( ; ), officially the ''Juche'' idea (), is the state ideology of North Korea and the official ideology of the Workers' Party of Korea. North Korean sources attribute its conceptualization to Kim Il-sung, the country's founder and ...
caused most Christians to flee to South Korea in pursuit of
religious freedom
Freedom of religion or religious liberty is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or community, in public or private, to manifest religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship, and observance. It also includes the freedom ...
.
Academic sympathy
Matteo Ricci
Matteo Ricci, SJ (; la, Mattheus Riccius; 6 October 1552 – 11 May 1610), was an Italians, Italian Society of Jesus, Jesuit Priesthood in the Catholic Church, priest and one of the founding figures of the Jesuit China missions. He create ...
's books, which he created to use Chinese ideograms and concepts to introduce Catholicism, provoked academic controversy when Yi Gwang-jeong brought them into Korea. Academics remained critical of the new thought for many years. Early in the 17th century,
Yi Su-gwang, a court scholar, and Yu Mong-in, a cabinet minister, wrote highly critical
commentaries on Ricci's works. During the next two centuries, academic criticism of Catholic beliefs continued, as it overturned Confucian veneration of elders and tradition. Some scholars, however, were more sympathetic to Catholicism. Members of the
Silhak
Silhak was a Korean Confucian social reform movement in late Joseon Dynasty. ''Sil'' means "actual" or "practical", and ''hak'' means "studies" or "learning". It developed in response to the increasingly metaphysical nature of Neo-Confucianism ( ...
(실학; "practical learning") school believed in social structure based on merit rather than birth (see
class discrimination
Class discrimination, also known as classism, is prejudice or discrimination on the basis of social class. It includes individual attitudes, behaviors, systems of policies and practices that are set up to benefit the upper class at the expense ...
), and were therefore often opposed by the mainstream academic establishment.
Silhak scholars perceived Catholicism as providing an ideological basis for their beliefs and were therefore attracted to what they saw as the egalitarian values of Catholicism.
[KIM Han-sik, "The Influence of Christianity", ''Korean Journal'' XXIII, 12, December 1983, pp. 6–7.] When Catholicism was finally established in Korea in the 18th century, there was already a substantial body of educated opinion sympathetic to it, which was crucial to the spread of the Catholic faith in the 1790s.
[KIM Han-sik, 'The Influence of Christianity', ''Korean Journal'' XXIII, 12, December 1983, p. 6.] An 1801 study indicated that 55% of all Catholics had family ties to the Silhak school.
[KIM Ok-hy, 'Women in the History of Catholicism in Korea', ]Korean Journal
Korean may refer to:
People and culture
* Koreans, ethnic group originating in the Korean Peninsula
* Korean cuisine
* Korean culture
* Korean language
**Korean alphabet, known as Hangul or Chosŏn'gŭl
**Korean dialects and the Jeju language
** ...
XXIV, 8, August 1984, p. 30.
Lay leadership
As a result of the influence of the Silhak school, Catholicism in Korea began as an indigenous lay movement rather than being largely organized by a foreign missionaries. The first Catholic prayer-house was founded in 1784 at Seoul by Yi Seung-hun, a diplomat who had been baptized in Beijing.
[CHOI Suk-Woo, pp. 5–6.] In 1786, Yi proceeded to establish a hierarchy of lay-priests.
[Unification Board, ''The Identity of the Korean People'', Seoul, 1983, pp. 132–136.] Although the Vatican ruled in 1789 that the appointment of lay-priests violated
Canon law
Canon law (from grc, κανών, , a 'straight measuring rod, ruler') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members. It is th ...
, in Korea indigenous lay-workers rather than foreign prelates carried Catholicism to many. Since Christianity began as largely a
grassroots
A grassroots movement is one that uses the people in a given district, region or community as the basis for a political or economic movement. Grassroots movements and organizations use collective action from the local level to effect change at t ...
effort in Korea, it spread more quickly through the population.
Hangul, literacy and education
Hangul
The Korean alphabet, known as Hangul, . Hangul may also be written as following South Korea's standard Romanization. ( ) in South Korea and Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea, is the modern official writing system for the Korean language. The let ...
, a
phonemic
In phonology and linguistics, a phoneme () is a unit of sound that can distinguish one word from another in a particular language.
For example, in most dialects of English, with the notable exception of the West Midlands and the north-west o ...
Korean alphabet invented around 1446 by scholars in the court of
Sejong the Great
Sejong of Joseon (15 May 1397 – 8 April 1450), personal name Yi Do (Korean: 이도; Hanja: 李祹), widely known as Sejong the Great (Korean: 세종대왕; Hanja: 世宗大王), was the fourth ruler of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. Initial ...
,
['']Merit Students Encyclopedia
''Merit Students Encyclopedia'' was a printed encyclopedia that was very similar to ''Collier's Encyclopedia'', but was geared towards upper grade school through college level. It was printed by Crowell-Collier Educational Corporation from about ...
'', Vol. 10, New York and London, 1980, p. 440. was little used for several centuries because of the perceived cultural superiority of
Classical Chinese
Classical Chinese, also known as Literary Chinese (古文 ''gǔwén'' "ancient text", or 文言 ''wényán'' "text speak", meaning
"literary language/speech"; modern vernacular: 文言文 ''wényánwén'' "text speak text", meaning
"literar ...
(a position similar to that of Latin in Europe). However, the Catholic Church became the first Korean religious organization to officially adopt Hangul as its primary script. Bishop
Siméon-François Berneux
Siméon-François Berneux (14 May 1814 – 8 March 1866) was a French Catholic missionary to Asia, and a member of the Paris Foreign Missions Society who was canonized as a saint. Berneux was executed in the anti-Christian purges at Saena ...
mandated that all Catholic children be taught to read it.
[CHO Kwang, 'The Meaning of Catholicism in Korean History', ''Korean Journal'' XXIV, 8, August 1984, pp. 20–21.] Christian literature printed for use in Korea, including that used by the network of schools established by Christian missionaries, mostly used the Korean language and the easily learned Hangul script. This combination of factors resulted in a rise in the overall literacy rate, and enabled Christian teachings to spread beyond the elite, who mostly used Chinese. As early as the 1780s, portions of the Gospels were published in Hangul;
doctrinal
Doctrine (from la, doctrina, meaning "teaching, instruction") is a codification of beliefs or a body of teachings or instructions, taught principles or positions, as the essence of teachings in a given branch of knowledge or in a belief system ...
books such as the "Jugyo Yoji" (주교요지) appeared in the 1790s and a Catholic
hymnal
A hymnal or hymnary is a collection of hymns, usually in the form of a book, called a hymnbook (or hymn book). Hymnals are used in congregational singing. A hymnal may contain only hymn texts (normal for most hymnals for most centuries of Chri ...
was printed around 1800.
John Ross, a Scottish Presbyterian missionary based in
Shenyang
Shenyang (, ; ; Mandarin pronunciation: ), formerly known as Fengtian () or by its Manchu language, Manchu name Mukden, is a major China, Chinese sub-provincial city and the List of capitals in China#Province capitals, provincial capital of Lia ...
, completed his translation of the New Testament into Korean in 1887, and Protestant leaders began a mass distribution effort. In addition, they established numerous schools, the first modern educational institutions in Korea.
[Andrew C. Nah, ''A Panorama of 5000 Years: Korean History'', Seoul, 1983, p. 81.] The Methodist
Paichai School for boys was founded in 1885, and the Methodist Ewha School for girls (later to become
Ewha Womans University
Ewha Womans University () is a private women's university in Seoul founded in 1886 by Mary F. Scranton under Emperor Gojong. It was the first university founded in South Korea. Currently, Ewha is one of the world's largest female educational ins ...
) followed in 1886. These, and similar schools established soon afterward, helped the expansion of Protestantism among the common people. Protestants surpassed Catholics as the largest Christian group in Korea. Female literacy rose sharply, since women had previously been excluded from the educational system.
[CHO Kwang, pp. 20–21.]
Christianity under Japanese occupation, 1910-1945
Christianity grew steadily, with the Catholic population reaching 147,000, and the Protestants 168,000 by the mid-1930s. The stronghold for both groups was the North. From 1910 to 1945 the Japanese occupied all of the country, taking over its rule under a treaty forced on Korea. The Japanese-controlled police made systematic efforts to minimize the influence of the missionaries; this reduced conversions during the years 1911–1919. The idealistic pronouncements of United States President
Woodrow Wilson
Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856February 3, 1924) was an American politician and academic who served as the 28th president of the United States from 1913 to 1921. A member of the Democratic Party, Wilson served as the president of ...
about self-determination of nations contributed to the rapid growth of Korean nationalism in the 1920s, but disillusionment set in after the movement failed to achieve meaningful reform. In 1924, Protestants founded the Korean National Christian Council to coordinate activities and divided the country into regions assigned to specific Protestant denominations for oversight. Korean Protestants also founded overseas missions to
Koreans in China
Koreans in China (), Korean Chinese (), Joseonjok, Chosŏnjok (), or Chaoxianzu (), are Chinese by nationality and are Koreans by ethnicity (with either full or partial Korean ancestry). A majority of the chaoxianzu are descendants of immigran ...
.
By 1937, the Presbyterian Church of Korea was largely independent of financial support from the United States; in 1934 the Methodist Church became autonomous and elected a Korean bishop. The most active missionaries among the Catholics were the
Maryknoll
Maryknoll is a name shared by a number of related Catholic organizations, including the Maryknoll Fathers and Brothers (also known as the Catholic Foreign Mission Society of America or the Maryknoll Society), the Maryknoll Sisters, and the Mary ...
order, which opened the Maryknoll School of Nursing in Pusan in 1964; it is now the
Catholic University of Pusan
The Catholic University of Pusan is situated in the southeastern South Korean port city of Busan. The current president is Son Sam-seok. The university is traditionally focused on nursing and health sciences, but in addition to these fields it ...
.
Korean nationalism
One of the most important factors leading to widespread acceptance of Christianity in Korea was the identification that many Christians forged with the cause of
Korean nationalism
Korean nationalism can be viewed in two different contexts. One encompasses various movements throughout history to maintain a Korean cultural identity, history, and ethnicity (or "race"). This ethnic nationalism was mainly forged in oppositio ...
during the
Japanese occupation (1910–1945). During this period, Japan undertook a systematic campaign of cultural assimilation. There was an emphasis on Showa, so the Koreans would revere the Japanese emperor. In 1938, Japan prohibited the use of the Korean language in government, schools and businesses and even at home.
The distinctly Korean nature of the church was reinforced during those years by the allegiance to the nation that was demonstrated by many Christians. While
South Korea's constitution guarantees freedom of religion and
separation of church and state
The separation of church and state is a philosophical and jurisprudential concept for defining political distance in the relationship between religious organizations and the state. Conceptually, the term refers to the creation of a secular sta ...
, the government has been sympathetic to Christianity. It considers the religion to provide some ideological protection against their Communist neighbor.
On 1 March 1919, an assembly of 33 religious and professional leaders, known as the "
March 1 Movement
The March 1st Movement, also known as the Sam-il (3-1) Movement (Hangul: 삼일 운동; Hanja: 三一 運動), was a protest movement by Korean people and students calling for independence from Japan in 1919, and protesting forced assimilation ...
", passed a
Declaration of independence
A declaration of independence or declaration of statehood or proclamation of independence is an assertion by a polity in a defined territory that it is independent and constitutes a state. Such places are usually declared from part or all of the ...
. Although organized by leaders of the
Chondogyo
Cheondoism (spelled Chondoism in North Korean sources; ) is a 20th-century Korean pantheistic religion, based on the 19th-century Donghak religious movement founded by Ch'oe Che-u and codified under Son Pyŏng-Hi. Cheondoism has its origins i ...
religion, 15 of the 33 signatories were Protestants,
including figures such as
Gil Seon-ju. The Japanese imprisoned many in the movement. Also in 1919, the predominantly Catholic pro-independence movement called "Ulmindan"
[CHOI Suk-woo, p. 10.] was founded. A
China-based Korean government-in-exile was at one time led by
Syngman Rhee
Syngman Rhee (, ; 26 March 1875 – 19 July 1965) was a South Korean politician who served as the first president of South Korea from 1948 to 1960.
Rhee was also the first and last president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Ko ...
, a Methodist.
['']Encyclopedia Americana
''Encyclopedia Americana'' is a general encyclopedia written in American English. It was the first major multivolume encyclopedia that was published in the United States. With ''Collier's Encyclopedia'' and ''Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclo ...
'', Vol. 23, Danbury, Conn., 1988, p. 464.
Christianity was linked even more with the patriotic cause when some Christians refused to participate in
worship
Worship is an act of religious devotion usually directed towards a deity. It may involve one or more of activities such as veneration, adoration, praise, and praying. For many, worship is not about an emotion, it is more about a recognition ...
of the
Japanese Emperor
The Emperor of Japan is the monarch and the head of the Imperial Family of Japan. Under the Constitution of Japan, he is defined as the symbol of the Japanese state and the unity of the Japanese people, and his position is derived from "the wi ...
, which was required by law in the 1930s.
[CHO Kwang, p. 11.] Although this refusal was motivated by theological rather than political convictions, the consequent imprisonment of many Christians strongly identified their faith, in the eyes of many Koreans, with the cause of Korean nationalism and resistance to the Japanese occupation. Especially the independence of Korea and the
Korean War
, date = {{Ubl, 25 June 1950 – 27 July 1953 (''de facto'')({{Age in years, months, weeks and days, month1=6, day1=25, year1=1950, month2=7, day2=27, year2=1953), 25 June 1950 – present (''de jure'')({{Age in years, months, weeks a ...
periods featured a further increase in Marian devotion among many Catholics that because Catholics thought the Blessed Virgin Mary who is patron saint of Korea helped Koreans against Japanese imperialism and communism. Both the date of Liberation Day in 1945 and the date of the establishment of the South Korean government in 1948 also overlap with the feast day of the
Assumption of Mary
The Assumption of Mary is one of the four Marian dogmas of the Catholic Church. Pope Pius XII defined it in 1950 in his apostolic constitution ''Munificentissimus Deus'' as follows:
We proclaim and define it to be a dogma revealed by Go ...
.
Minjung theology
The Christian concept of individual worth has found expression in a lengthy struggle for human rights and democracy in Korea. In recent years, this struggle has taken the form of
Minjung theology
Minjung theology () emerged in the 1970s from the experience of South Korean Christians in the struggle for social justice. It is a people's theology, and, according to its authors, "a development of the political hermeneutics of the Gospel in ter ...
. Minjung theology is based on the "image of God" concept expressed i
Genesis 1:26–27 but also incorporates the traditional Korean feeling of ''
han
Han may refer to:
Ethnic groups
* Han Chinese, or Han People (): the name for the largest ethnic group in China, which also constitutes the world's largest ethnic group.
** Han Taiwanese (): the name for the ethnic group of the Taiwanese p ...
'', a word that has no exact English translation, but that denotes a sense of inconsolable pain and utter helplessness. Minjung theology depicts commoners in Korean history as the rightful masters of their own destiny. Two of the country's best known political leaders,
Kim Young-sam
Kim Young-sam (; or ; 20 December 1927 – 22 November 2015) was a Demographics of South Korea, South Korean politician and activist who served as the seventh president of South Korea from 1993 to 1998.
From 1961, he spent almost 30 year ...
, a Presbyterian, and
Kim Dae-jung
Kim Dae-jung (; ; 6 January 192418 August 2009), was a South Korea, South Korean politician and activist who served as the eighth president of South Korea from 1998 to 2003.
He was a 2000 Nobel Peace Prize recipient for his work for democra ...
, a Roman Catholic, subscribe to Minjung theology.
[Michael Lee, 'Korean Churches Pursue Social and Political Justice', in Brian Heavy (Ed.), ''Accent'' III, 3 Auckland, May 1988, pp. 19–20.] Both men spent decades opposing military governments in South Korea and were frequently imprisoned as a result, and both also served terms as President of the Republic after democracy was restored in 1988.
One manifestation of Minjung theology in the final years of the
Park Chung-hee
Park Chung-hee (, ; 14 November 1917 – 26 October 1979) was a South Korean politician and army general who served as the dictator of South Korea from 1961 until his assassination in 1979; ruling as an unelected military strongman from 1961 ...
regime (1961–1979) was the rise of several Christian social missions, such as the Catholic Farmers Movement and the Protestant Urban Industrial Mission, which campaigned for better wages and working conditions for laborers. The military government imprisoned many of their leaders because it considered the movement a threat to social stability, and their struggle coincided with a period of unrest which culminated in the assassination of President Park on 26 October 1979.
[ Keesing's Contemporary Archives, London, 25 April 1980, p. 30216.]
Social change
Many Korean Christians believe that their values have had a positive effect on various social relationships. Traditional Korean society was hierarchically arranged according to Confucian principles. This structure was challenged by the Christian teaching that all human beings are created in the image of God and thus that every one of them is equal and has essential worth.
[KIM Han-sik, pp. 11–12.] According to Kim Han-sik, this concept also supported the idea of property being owned by individuals rather than by families.
Christians regarded the emperor as a mere man who was as much under God's authority as were his subjects,
[CHOI Suk-woo, p. 7.] and Christian values favored the social emancipation of women and children.
[CHO Kwang, pp. 16–18.][CHO Kwang, pp. 18–19.] Christian parents were taught to regard their children as gifts from God, and were required to educate them.
[CHO Kwang, pp. 16–19.] Youn Chul-ho
Youn Chul-ho (; born 1 April 1955) is a Presbyterian theologian of South Korea. After teaching systematic theology and hermeneutics for 30 years at Presbyterian University and Theological Seminary, he has been an emeritus professor since June 202 ...
insisted that Korean churches could transform the world through the serving and sacrifice of the church.
Economic growth
South Korea's rapid economic growth in the 1960s and 1970s is usually credited to the policy of
export-oriented industrialization
Export-oriented industrialization (EOI) sometimes called export substitution industrialization (ESI), export led industrialization (ELI) or export-led growth is a trade and economic policy aiming to speed up the industrialization process of a ...
led by Park Chung-hee to indigenous cultural values and
work ethic
Work ethic is a belief that work and diligence have a moral benefit and an inherent ability, virtue or value to strengthen character and individual abilities. It is a set of values centered on importance of work and manifested by determination o ...
, a strong alliance with the United States, and the infusion of foreign capital. Many South Korean Christians view their religion as a factor in the country's dramatic economic growth over the past three decades, believing that its success and prosperity are indications of God's blessing.
A 2003 study by economists Robert J. Barro and Rachel McCleary suggests that societies with high levels of belief in heaven and high levels of church attendance exhibit high rates of economic growth. Barro and McCleary's model has been influential in subsequent scholarship and, to some observers, it supports the belief that Christianity has played a major role in South Korea's economic success. The study has been criticised by scholars such as Durlauf, Kortellos and Tan (2006). There is a tendency to build
megachurch
A megachurch is a church with an unusually large membership that also offers a variety of educational and social activities, usually Protestant or Evangelical. The Hartford Institute for Religion Research defines a megachurch as any Protestant C ...
es since 2000, that leads some churches to financial debt.
World Mission and Evangelization
"In the 1960s the church reached out to people who were oppressed, such as prostitutes and new industrial laborers. As the Korean economy was burgeoning, the issue of the industrial labor force came to the fore as one of the most important areas of evangelization work. Churches established industrial chaplaincies among the workers within factories. In addition, with military service mandatory for men in South Korea, the part the chaplain's corps in the armed forces became equally important. Many soldiers converted to Christianity during their military service."
Korean is now second only to the United States in terms of commissioned missionaries (30,000). The denomination with the highest number of missionaries is Presbyterian Church in Korea (Hapdong) with about 3,000 missionaries.
Political and social issues
There have been various political and social criticisms in the Korean Christian scene since President
Lee Myung-bak
Lee Myung-bak (; ; ; born 19 December 1941) is a South Korean businessman and politician who served as the 10th president of South Korea from 2008 to 2013. Before his presidency, he was the CEO of Hyundai Engineering and Construction, and the ma ...
came into power. The South Korean government proposed to restrict South Korean citizens working for missionary works in the Middle East. Professor Son Bong-ho of Goshin University criticized the president for partaking in a national-level Christian prayers' gathering on March 2011 that signaled a potential danger of the strong Protestant influence in the secular South Korean politics. Increasing acts of hostility by Protestant Christians against Buddhism, have drawn strong criticism and backlash against Protestant churches by the South Korean public and has contributed in Protestantism's growing decline in Korea.
Seoul Free Lunch Referendum
Former Mayor of Seoul,
Oh Se-hoon
Oh Se-hoon (Korean: 오세훈, Hanja: 吳世勳; born January 4, 1961) is a South Korean politician who is currently the serving Mayor of Seoul since 8 April 2021. He also previously served as a member of the National Assembly of South Korea ...
, proposed a
referendum
A referendum (plural: referendums or less commonly referenda) is a direct vote by the electorate on a proposal, law, or political issue. This is in contrast to an issue being voted on by a representative. This may result in the adoption of a ...
in Seoul on 24 August 2011. Pastors of multiple churches in Seoul were found to involve unlawfully with the lay people about the referendum and later being penalized by the Seoul Metropolitan election Commission (서울시선거관리위원회).
October 2011 by-election
A Christian group in Seoul had been indicted by the Seoul Metropolitan election Commission for sending politically motivated emails to the laypeople in order to vote for the conservative candidate,
Na Kyung-won
Na Kyung-won (나경원, born 6 December 1963) is a South Korean judge-turned-politician. She is a member of the conservative People Power Party, which is the main opposition party. She was a four-term member of the National Assembly and the ...
, before the
2011 South Korean by-elections
The two South Korean 2011 by-elections took place on April 27, 2011 in 38 electoral districts across the country and on October 26, 2011 in Seoul after Oh Se-hoon resigned due to his failure in the Seoul Free Lunch Referendum.
October 26
The main ...
.
Creationism
In South Korea, Christian groups have been involved in the promotion of
creationism
Creationism is the religious belief that nature, and aspects such as the universe, Earth, life, and humans, originated with supernatural acts of divine creation. Gunn 2004, p. 9, "The ''Concise Oxford Dictionary'' says that creationism is 't ...
, especially the Korea Association for Creation Research (KACR) which advocates creation following the
Book of Genesis
The Book of Genesis (from Greek ; Hebrew: בְּרֵאשִׁית ''Bəreʾšīt'', "In hebeginning") is the first book of the Hebrew Bible and the Christian Old Testament. Its Hebrew name is the same as its first word, ( "In the beginning") ...
, and the Society for Textbook Revise (STR), an alternative translation Committee to Revise Evolution in Textbook (CREIT).
It's an independent offshoot of the KACR, and has distanced itself from the KACR doctrine.
In early 2008,
Seoul Land
Seoul Land is an amusement park opened in 1987, in Gwacheon, a city in Gyeonggi-do province, South Korea. It is located in the Seoul Grand Park complex. It opened just before the 1988 Summer Olympics. It has about 40 rides, including roller coa ...
, a leading amusement park, hosted a "
creation science
Creation science or scientific creationism is a pseudoscientific form of Young Earth creationism which claims to offer scientific arguments for certain literalist and inerrantist interpretations of the Bible. It is often presented without ove ...
" exhibit, organized by KACR, which was visited by over 116,000 visitors in three months, and , the park is in talks to create a year-long exhibition.
In 2012, following pressure from STR, the
Ministry of Education
An education ministry is a national or subnational government agency politically responsible for education. Various other names are commonly used to identify such agencies, such as Ministry of Education, Department of Education, and Ministry of Pub ...
announced that many high-school textbooks would be revised to remove certain examples of evolution, such as of the horse and the dinosaur ''
Archaeopteryx
''Archaeopteryx'' (; ), sometimes referred to by its German name, "" ( ''Primeval Bird''), is a genus of bird-like dinosaurs. The name derives from the ancient Greek (''archaīos''), meaning "ancient", and (''ptéryx''), meaning "feather" ...
''.
Translation available at:
* The changes were limited to removal or revision of certain examples
[comment by Joonghwan Jeon](_blank)
scientist quoted in ''Nature'' article which were the subject of some debate;
also, STR plans to submit further petitions to remove evolution of humans and the adaptation of finch beaks, with the end goal of diminishing the role of Darwinian evolution in teaching.
This attempt was eventually denied by South Korean government in September of the year.
Religious conflict
Fundamentalist Protestant antagonism against Buddhism has been a major issue for religious cooperation in South Korea, especially during the 1990s to late 2000s. Acts of vandalism against Buddhist amenities and "regular praying for the destruction of all Buddhist temples" have drawn criticism. Buddhist statues have been considered as idols, attacked and decapitated. Arrests are hard to enforce, as the perpetrators work by stealth at night. Such acts, which are supported by some Protestant leaders, have led to South Koreans having an increasingly negative outlook on Protestantism and being critical of church groups involved, with many Protestants leaving their churches in recent years.
In contrast, relations between South Korean Catholics and Buddhists and other faiths has remained largely cooperative, partly due to the syncretism of many Buddhist and Confucian customs and philosophies into South Korean Catholicism, most notably the practice of ''
jesa
Jesa (, ) is a ceremony commonly practiced in the East Asian cultural sphere. Jesa functions as a memorial to the ancestors of the participants. Jesa are usually held on the anniversary of the ancestor's death. The majority of Catholics, Budd ...
''.
Pope Francis' visit
Pope Francis
Pope Francis ( la, Franciscus; it, Francesco; es, link=, Francisco; born Jorge Mario Bergoglio, 17 December 1936) is the head of the Catholic Church. He has been the bishop of Rome and sovereign of the Vatican City State since 13 March 2013. ...
accepted an invitation to visit South Korea in August 2014. The four-day visit (14–18 August) culminated with a Papal Mass at Myeongdong Cathedral, the seat of the Archdiocese of Seoul on 18 August. During a mass on 16 August, the Pope
beatified
Beatification (from Latin ''beatus'', "blessed" and ''facere'', "to make”) is a recognition accorded by the Catholic Church of a deceased person's entrance into Heaven and capacity to intercede on behalf of individuals who pray in their nam ...
124 Korean Catholic
martyrs
A martyr (, ''mártys'', "witness", or , ''marturia'', stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external ...
. An invitation for North Korea's Catholics to attend was declined, due to South Korea's refusal to withdraw from military exercises which it had planned with the United States.
Notable Korean Christians
Politicians
*
Syngman Rhee
Syngman Rhee (, ; 26 March 1875 – 19 July 1965) was a South Korean politician who served as the first president of South Korea from 1948 to 1960.
Rhee was also the first and last president of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Ko ...
- Methodist; ROK President, 1948-1960
*
Chang Myon
Chang Myon (hangul: 장면; hanja: 張勉; August28, 1899June4, 1966) was a South Korean statesman, educator, diplomat, journalist and social activist as well as a Roman Catholic youth activist. He was the only prime minister of the parliamenta ...
- Roman Catholic; ROK Prime Minister, 1950-1952, 1960-1961; ROK Vice President, 1956-1960
*
Yun Posun
Yun Po-sun (; or ; August 26, 1897 – July 18, 1990) was a South Korean politician and activist who served as the second president of South Korea from 1960 to 1962. He was the only president of the parliamentary Second Republic of Korea.
Ha ...
- Presbyterian; Mayor of Seoul, 1948-1949; ROK President, 1960-1962
*
Kim Young-Sam
Kim Young-sam (; or ; 20 December 1927 – 22 November 2015) was a Demographics of South Korea, South Korean politician and activist who served as the seventh president of South Korea from 1993 to 1998.
From 1961, he spent almost 30 year ...
Presbyterian; ROK President, 1993-1998
*
Kim Dae-Jung
Kim Dae-jung (; ; 6 January 192418 August 2009), was a South Korea, South Korean politician and activist who served as the eighth president of South Korea from 1998 to 2003.
He was a 2000 Nobel Peace Prize recipient for his work for democra ...
Roman Catholic; Member of the ROK National Assembly, 1961, 1963-1972, 1988-1992; ROK President, 1998-2003
*
Roh Moo-hyun
Roh Moo-hyun (; ; 1 September 1946 – 23 May 2009) was a South Korean politician and lawyer who served as the ninth president of South Korea between 2003 and 2008.
Roh's pre-presidential political career was focused on human rights advocacy for ...
nominally Roman Catholic;
Hani News
The Hankyoreh
''The Hankyoreh'' (, literally "The Korean Nation" or "One Nation") is a centre-left liberal daily newspaper in South Korea. It was established in 1988 after widespread purges forced out dissident journalists, and was envisioned as an alternati ...
(3 September 2008). Retrieved 13 September 2008 Member of the ROK National Assembly, 1988-1992, 1998-2000; ROK Minister of Oceans and Fisheries, 2000-2001; ROK President, 2003-2008
* Lee Myung-bak
Lee Myung-bak (; ; ; born 19 December 1941) is a South Korean businessman and politician who served as the 10th president of South Korea from 2008 to 2013. Before his presidency, he was the CEO of Hyundai Engineering and Construction, and the ma ...
Presbyterian; Member of the ROK National Assembly, 1992-1998; Mayor of Seoul, 2002-2006; ROK President, 2008-2013
* Moon Jae-in
Moon Jae-in (; ; born 24 January 1953) is a South Korean former politician, civil servant and lawyer who served as the 12th president of South Korea between 2017 and 2022. Prior to his presidency, he served as Senior Secretary for Civil Affairs an ...
Roman Catholic; Member of the ROK National Assembly, 2012-2016; ROK President, 2017–2022
* Yoon Suk-yeol
Yoon Suk-yeol (; born 18 December 1960) is a South Korean politician, former public prosecutor and lawyer who has been serving as the 13th and current president of South Korea since 2022. Prior to his presidency, he served as the prosecutor g ...
Roman Catholic; ROK President, 2022–present
See also
*Anglican Church of Korea
The Anglican Church of Korea (or Episcopal Church of Korea) is the province of the Anglican Communion in North and South Korea. Founded in 1889, it has over 120 parish and mission churches with a total membership of roughly 65,000 people.
Hist ...
*Catholic Church in Korea
The Catholic Church in Korea is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, under the spiritual leadership of the pope in Rome.
The Catholic hierarchy in Korea has never been divided between South and North, in the same manner as the Catholic hier ...
*Catholic Church in South Korea
, native_name_lang =
, image = File:Seoul_Cathedral.jpg
, imagewidth = 250px
, alt =
, caption = Cathedral Church of Virgin Mary of the Immaculate Conception
, abbreviation =
, type ...
* Evangelicalism#South Korea
*Lutheran Church in Korea
The Lutheran Church in Korea or LCK ( ko, 기독교한국루터회) is a Confessional Lutheran, confessional Lutheranism, Lutheran Christian denomination, denomination in the Republic of Korea and the only Lutheranism, Lutheran denomination in Sou ...
*National Council of Churches in Korea
The National Council of Churches in Korea ( ko, 한국 기독교 교회 협의회; NCCK) is a Christian ecumenical organization founded in Korea in 1924 as the National Christian Council in Korea. It is a member of the World Council of Churches and ...
*Korean Orthodox Church
The Korean Orthodox Church ( ko, 한국 정교회) or Metropolis of Korea is an Eastern Orthodox diocese under the jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople in Korea (''de facto'' in South Korea).[Presbyterianism in South Korea
In South Korea, there are roughly 20.5 million Christians of whom 15 million are Protestants; of those some 9 to 10 million are Presbyterians. Presbyterians in South Korea worship in over 100 different Presbyterian denominational churches who trac ...]
*Religion in Korea
Throughout the ages, there have been various popular religious traditions practiced on the Korean peninsula. The oldest indigenous religion of Korea is the Korean folk religion (a version of Shamanism), which has been passed down from prehistor ...
*Religion in North Korea
There are no known official statistics of religions in North Korea. Officially, North Korea is an atheist state, although its constitution guarantees free exercise of religion, provided that religious practice does not introduce foreign force ...
*Religion in South Korea
Religion in South Korea is diverse. A substantial number of South Koreans have no religion. Christianity (Protestantism and Catholicism) and Buddhism are the dominant confessions among those who affiliate with a formal religion. Buddhism and C ...
*Presbyterian Church in Korea (Tonghap)
The Presbyterian Church of Korea (TongHap) is a mainline Protestant denomination based in South Korea; it currently has the second largest membership of any Presbyterian denomination in the world. It is affiliated with its daughter denomination, ...
*Presbyterian Church in Korea (HapDong)
The Presbyterian Church in Korea (HapDong) is an Evangelical Presbyterian denomination, which is the biggest Christian church in South Korea. The headquarters of the church is in Seoul, South Korea.
History
In 1959 at the 44th General Assembly ...
*Presbyterian Church in Korea (Koshin)
The Kosin Presbyterian Church in Korea, also called Korea-pa, is an Evangelical Reformed and Presbyterian denomination in the Republic of South Korea. Although, congregations have spread all over North America and in many other countries.
The ...
*Presbyterian Church in the Republic of Korea
The Presbyterian Church in the Republic of Korea or the KiJang Presbyterian Church is an ecumenically-minded Presbyterian denomination in South Korea.
History
The Presbyterian Church in Korea was established in 1902. In 1912 the first General As ...
*
References
Bibliography
* Baker, Don. "From Pottery to Politics: The Transformation of Korean Catholicism." Pp. 127–68 in ''Religion and Society in Contemporary Korea,'' edited by Lewis R. Lancaster and Richard K. Payne. (University of California Press, 1997)
* Bays, Daniel H., and James H. Grayson. 2006. "Christianity in East Asia: China, Korea, and Japan." Pp. 493–512 in ''The Cambridge History of Christianity: World Christianities c. 1815–c. 1914,'' edited by Sheridan Gilley and Brian Stanley. (Cambridge University Press 2006)
* Buswell, Robert E., Jr., and Timothy S. Lee, eds. ''Christianity in Korea'' (University of Hawai'i Press, 2005)
*
*Clark, Donald N. ''Christianity in Modern Korea'' (1986)
*
* Davies, Daniel M. "The Impact of Christianity upon Korea, 1884–1910: Six Key American and Korean Figures." ''Journal of Church and State'' 36.4 (1994) pp: 795–820.
*
*
*''Focus on Korea'' (1986). Vol. 2, "Korean History", Seoul: Seoul International Pub. House.
*Grayson, James H. ''Korea: A Religious History'' (RoutledgeCurzon, 2002). ch 10-1
excerpt and text search
* Grayson, James H. ''Early Buddhism and Christianity in Korea: A Study in the Emplantation of Religion'' (E. J. Brill, 1985)
*
*
*
*
* Kang, Wi Jo. '' Christ and Caesar in Modern Korea: A History of Christianity and Politics'' (1997)
excerpt and text search
*Keesing's (1979). ''Keesing's Contemporary Archives'' 25: p. 30216. ISSN 0022-9679.
* Kim, Andrew E. "Korean religious culture and its affinity to Christianity: The rise of Protestant Christianity in South Korea." ''Sociology of Religion'' 61.2 (2000) pp: 117–133.
* Kim, Andrew Eungi. "Characteristics of religious life in South Korea: A sociological survey." ''Review of Religious Research'' (2002): 291–310
in JSTOR
*
*
*
*.
*
* Park, Sangyil, ''Korean Preaching, Han, and Narrative'' (Peter Lang, 2008) (American University Studies, Series 7: Theology and Religion, 282).
*
*
* Mullins, Mark, and Richard Fox Young, eds. ''Perspectives on Christianity in Korea and Japan: The Gospel and Culture in East Asia'' (Edwin Mellen, 1995)
* Park, Chung-shin. ''Protestantism and Politics in Korea'' (U. of Washington Press, 2003)
*
*
External links
Korean Church World Map
Pressure of Buddhism from Christianity in Korea
CIA The World Factbook – Korea, South
Life Church International Community
The Religious Revolution in Modern Korean History: Podcast of Professor Don Baker at The Korea Society
The Great Revival Movement of 1907 and its Historical Impact on Korean Church
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Criticizing Fundamental Protestantism in South Korean politics
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Korean Christianity as a profit made by boom of big church constructions
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"결혼 때문에 개종하는 한국인 이해안돼"
Korean religion scenes explained by non-Korean religious figures
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