The General Association of Korean Residents in Japan,
" ''

Ministry of Justice A Ministry of Justice is a common type of government department that serves as a justice ministry. Lists of current ministries of justice Named "Ministry" * Ministry of Justice (Abkhazia) * Ministry of Justice (Afghanistan) * Ministry of Just ...

''. Retrieved on 17 January 2009. abbreviated as (

Korean Korean may refer to: People and culture * Koreans, ethnic group originating in the Korean Peninsula * Korean cuisine * Korean culture * Korean language **Korean alphabet, known as Hangul or Chosŏn'gŭl **Korean dialects and the Jeju language ** ...

: ,

Hanja Hanja (Hangul: ; Hanja: , ), alternatively known as Hancha, are Chinese characters () used in the writing of Korean. Hanja was used as early as the Gojoseon period, the first ever Korean kingdom. (, ) refers to Sino-Korean vocabulary, wh ...

: ) or (Japanese: ), is one of two main organisations for (or ) Koreans (Korean citizens or residents of Japan) and has close ties to

North Korea North Korea, officially the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the northern half of the Korea, Korean Peninsula and shares borders with China and Russia to the north, at the Yalu River, Y ...

(DPRK). As there are no diplomatic relations between the two states, it has functioned as North Korea's ''de facto'' embassy in Japan. The organisation is headquartered in

Chiyoda, Tokyo is a special ward located in central Tokyo, Japan. It is known as Chiyoda City in English.Profile< ...

, and there are prefectural and regional head offices and branches throughout Japan. The other main organization in Japan of Korean affiliation is called

Mindan Mindan ( ko, 민단), or the Korean Residents Union in Japan (), is one of two main organizations for Koreans living in Japan, the other being Chongryon. Mindan has ties to South Korea and was established in 1946 in Tokyo, Japan. Currently, amo ...

, the Korean Residents Union in Japan, which contrastingly consists of Zainichi Koreans who have adopted South Korean nationality. Currently, among 610,000 Korean residents in Japan who have not adopted

Japanese nationality Japanese nationality law details the conditions by which a person holds nationality of Japan. The primary law governing nationality regulations is the 1950 Nationality Act. Children born to at least one Japanese parent are generally automatical ...

, 25 percent are members of the Chongryon, and 65 percent are members of Mindan. Chongryon's strong links to North Korea, its allegiance to the North Korean ideology and its opposition to integration of Koreans into Japanese society have made it the more controversial of the two organisations in Japan. There are numerous organisations affiliated with the Chongryon, including 18 mass propaganda bodies and 23 business enterprises, with one of its most important business sectors being

pachinko is a mechanical game originating in Japan that is used as an arcade game, and much more frequently for gambling. Pachinko fills a niche in Japanese gambling comparable to that of the slot machine in the West as a form of low-stakes, low-st ...

. The organisation also operates about 60 Korean schools and a Korean university, as well as banks and other facilities in Japan. In recent years, the organization has run into severe financial trouble, with debts of over US$750 million, and was ordered by court in 2012 to dispose of most of its assets, including its Tokyo headquarters. According to an interview with Mitsuhiro Suganuma, former head of the

Public Security Intelligence Agency The is the national intelligence agency of Japan. It is administered by the Ministry of Justice in the government of Japan, and is tasked with internal security and espionage against threats to Japanese national security based on the Subversive ...

's Second Intelligence Department, Chongryon is under the control of the

United Front Department of the Workers' Party of Korea The United Front Department of the Workers' Party of Korea (UFD, ) is a department of the Central Committee of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) tasked with relations with South Korea. It conducts propaganda operations and espionage and manage ...

's Liaison Department.

Background and history

Long-term ethnic Korean residents in Japan primarily consist of those, and descendants of, ethnic Koreans who settled in Japan as: * Migrants during Japan's rule over Korea (1910–1945) * Conscripted labourers during the Second World War * Post-World War II refugees, especially from Jeju island escaping the 1948 Jeju massacre. A 1953 government survey revealed that 93% were from the southern half of the Korean peninsula. From 1910 to 1945, ethnic Koreans were Japanese nationals. The end of the Second World War left the nationality status of Koreans in an ambiguous position, as no recognized functional government existed on the Korean Peninsula (the

Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea The Korean Provisional Government (KPG), formally the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea, was a partially recognized Korean government-in-exile based in Shanghai, China, and later in Chongqing, during the period of Japanese c ...

, a

government-in-exile A government in exile (abbreviated as GiE) is a political group that claims to be a country or semi-sovereign state's legitimate government, but is unable to exercise legal power and instead resides in a foreign country. Governments in exile u ...

, was only somewhat recognized internationally and was not a formal Korean government until South Korea's formation in 1948). Their nationality was provisionally registered under the name of ''Joseon'' (Chōsen in Japanese, , ), the old

name A name is a term used for identification by an external observer. They can identify a class or category of things, or a single thing, either uniquely, or within a given context. The entity identified by a name is called its referent. A personal ...

of undivided Korea. The 1948 declaration of independence by both South and North Korea made Joseon a defunct nation. Those with Joseon nationality were allowed to re-register their nationality to a South Korean one; however the same did not apply to North Korea due to the fact that Japan only recognises South Korea as the legitimate government of Korea, so supporters of the North retained their Joseon nationality. Ethnic Koreans in Japan established the

Association of Koreans in Japan Association may refer to: *Club (organization), an association of two or more people united by a common interest or goal *Trade association, an organization founded and funded by businesses that operate in a specific industry *Voluntary associatio ...

in 1945, which followed a socialist ideology, and was banned in 1949 by the order of Allied occupation army. The United Democratic Front of Korea in Japan was established in 1951, which was banned due to suspected involvement in the 1952 May Day riots. In 1952, the North Korean leader

Kim Il-sung Kim Il-sung (; , ; born Kim Song-ju, ; 15 April 1912 – 8 July 1994) was a North Korean politician and the founder of North Korea, which he ruled from the country's establishment in 1948 until his death in 1994. He held the posts of ...

called on the socialist Zainichi Korean movement to be coordinated in close contact with the North Korean government, and to fight, not for a socialist revolution in Japan, but for the socialist reunification of the Korean peninsula. Chongryon was established on 25 May 1955 by

Han Duk-su Han Deok-su (1907–2001) founded the General Association of Korean Residents in Japan (Chongryon The General Association of Korean Residents in Japan,political prison camps. Japanese research puts the number of Zainichi Korean returnees condemned to prison camps at around 10,000. In 1990 Ha Su-to, former vice chief of organization for Chongryon who was expelled in 1972 for demanding democratic reforms, led a rally in Tokyo of 500 to protest against North Korea's human rights violations, in which protesters accused North Korea of holding the ex-Zainichi returnees captive to siphon money off remittances from their relatives in Japan. On 25 November 2020, Pak Ku-ho was replacing Ho Jong-man as the head of Chongryon due to the latter's health complications from diabetes.

Conflict with South Korea

The South Korean National Election Commission considered preventing Chongryon residents from voting in the 2012 South Korean Presidential Election.

2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami

The North Korean Chongryon-affiliated Fukushima Korean School sheltered 18 Japanese citizens from 18 March until the end of March. However, the Chongryon criticized the

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan The is an executive department of the Government of Japan, and is responsible for the country's foreign policy and international relations. The ministry was established by the second term of the third article of the National Government Organi ...

for not officially recognizing North Korea as one of the countries that sent

humanitarian aid Humanitarian aid is material and logistic assistance to people who need help. It is usually short-term help until the long-term help by the government and other institutions replaces it. Among the people in need are the homeless, refugees, and ...

to the survivors of the

2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami The occurred at 14:46 JST (05:46 UTC) on 11 March. The magnitude 9.0–9.1 (M) undersea megathrust earthquake had an epicenter in the Pacific Ocean, east of the Oshika Peninsula of the Tōhoku region, and lasted approximately six minutes ...

Death and funeral of Kim Jong-il

Following the death of North Korean leader Kim Jong-il in December 2011, Chongryon ordered members to keep a low profile. Pupils at its schools were barred from speaking to reporters, Japanese and Westerners alike, who in turn were turned away from facilities. The Japanese government nevertheless refused to issue re-entry permits to stop Chongryon personnel in case they wanted to attend the funeral.

Auction

In June 2012, the

Japanese Supreme Court The , located in Hayabusachō, Chiyoda, Tokyo, is the highest court in Japan. It has ultimate judicial authority to interpret the Japanese constitution and decide questions of national law. It has the power of judicial review, which allows it to ...

recognized Chongryon's role as North Korea's ''de facto'' embassy and authorized the seizure of Chongryon properties to pay off debts incurred. In 2013 a bid was approved on the property by

Ekan Ikeguchi Ekan Ikeguchi (池口恵観, born November 15, 1936) is a Shingon Buddhist priest, currently the High Priest of Saifukuji in Kagoshima and Shojoshin-in on Mount Koya. He holds a doctorate in medicine from Yamaguchi University and is an expert in ...

who was subsequently unable to secure funding. In November 2014, Marunaka Holdings Co. purchased the property for ¥2.21 billion with plans to evict the Chongryon.

Incidents

On 23 February 2018, the Chongryon building was targeted in an attack when two persons in a van opened fire at the compound before 4 in the morning. They were eventually arrested by police and were identified as Satoshi Katsurada, a right-wing activist and Yoshinori Kawamura, an ex-

yakuza , also known as , are members of transnational organized crime syndicates originating in Japan. The Japanese police and media, by request of the police, call them , while the ''yakuza'' call themselves . The English equivalent for the term ...

member with the latter confirmed as the person responsible for firing a gun with five shots fired. On 9 July 2020, an anti-riot officer stationed near Chongryon killed himself after he was off duty with his own sidearm.

Surveillance

On 17 May 2019, it was announced that Japanese law enforcement will continue to monitor Chongryon activities due to its close ties with North Korea.

Relationship with international corporations

According to the ''

Dong-A Ilbo The ''Dong-A Ilbo'' (, literally ''East Asia Daily'') is a newspaper of record in Korea since 1920 with a daily circulation of more than 1.2 million and opinion leaders as its main readers. ''The Dong-A Ilbo'' is the parent company of Dong-A ...

'', the Chongryon cooperated with

Nike Nike often refers to: * Nike (mythology), a Greek goddess who personifies victory * Nike, Inc., a major American producer of athletic shoes, apparel, and sports equipment Nike may also refer to: People * Nike (name), a surname and feminine give ...

to make an advertisement addressing problems of Zainichi Koreans in 2020.

Ideology

On their website, Chongryon claims that all their activities are based around the concept of ''

Juche ''Juche'' ( ; ), officially the ''Juche'' idea (), is the state ideology of North Korea and the official ideology of the Workers' Party of Korea. North Korean sources attribute its conceptualization to Kim Il-sung, the country's founder and ...

'', the official state ideology of North Korea. Chongryon says it is committed to a peaceful reunification of the Korean peninsula under North Korean ''Juche'', and it does not recognise the Republic of Korea (South Korea). It refers to South Korea as ''Minami Chosen'' (''Namjosŏn'', "Southern ''Joseon''"), as opposed to the usual term used in Japanese to refer to it: ''Kankoku'' (''Hanguk''). (See

Names of Korea There are various names of Korea in use today, all derived from ancient kingdoms and dynasties. The modern English name "Korea" is an exonym derived from the name Goryeo, also spelled ''Koryŏ'', and is used by both North Korea and South Korea in ...

.) Chongryon opposes the use of the Japanese word ''Kita-Chosen'' ("North Korea") as an abbreviation of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea. It refers to the country as ''Kyōwakoku'' ("The Republic") or ''Sokoku'' ("The Fatherland"). In 1972 Chongryon campaigned to get the Japanese media to stop referring to North Korea as ''Kita-Chosen''. This effort was not successful, but as a compromise, most media companies agreed to refer to the DPRK with its full official title at least once in every article. By January 2003, this policy started to be abandoned by most newspapers, starting with ''

Tokyo Shimbun ''The Tokyo Shimbun'' (東京新聞, ''Tōkyō Shinbun'', literally ''Tokyo Newspaper'') is a Japanese newspaper published by The Chunichi Shimbun Company. The group publishes newspapers under the brand name of The Tokyo Shimbun in the Tokyo Met ...

'', which announced that it would no longer write out the full name, followed by ''

Asahi Asahi (朝日, 旭, or あさひ) means "morning sun" in Japanese and may refer to: Cities * Asahi, Chiba (旭市; ''Asahi-shi'') Wards * Asahi-ku, Osaka (旭区; ''Asahi-ku'') * Asahi-ku, Yokohama (旭; ''Asahi-ku'') Towns * Asahi, Aichi (旭� ...

'', ''

Mainichi The is one of the major newspapers in Japan, published by In addition to the ''Mainichi Shimbun'', which is printed twice a day in several local editions, Mainichi also operates an English language news website called ''The Mainichi'' (prev ...

'' and '' Nikkei''. Chongryon claims to be a representative body of overseas North Korean citizens living in Japan and rejects the notion that they are a mere ethnic minority. Out of the two main Korean organisations in Japan, Chongryon has been the more militant in advocating retention of Korean ethnic identity. It is generally opposed to Korean-Japanese integration into Japanese society; for example, it discourages its members from naturalising as Japanese citizens or marrying Japanese (which it calls an "international marriage"). It even rejects Zainichi Koreans' right to vote or participate in Japanese regional elections, which it sees as an unacceptable attempt at assimilation into Japanese society. This is in contrast to Mindan, which is campaigning for wider Zainichi Korean participation in Japanese politics.

Activities

Chongryon runs support and advisory services for members, such as legal and marriage advice and employment help. It is responsible for issuing

North Korean passport The Democratic People's Republic of Korea passport, commonly referred to as the North Korean passport, is the passport which may be issued to North Korean citizens for international travel. Since the majority of North Koreans do not get opportu ...

s. Chongryon-affiliated organisations operate businesses and banks to provide jobs, services and social networks for Zainichi Koreans outside of mainstream society. In the 1970s and 1980s, these organizations constituted an important economic link between North Korea and Japan. The Chongryon-affiliated companies monitored the

Tokyo Stock Exchange The , abbreviated as Tosho () or TSE/TYO, is a stock exchange located in Tokyo, Japan. It is the third largest stock exchange in the world by aggregate market capitalization of its listed companies, and the largest in Asia. It had 2,292 listed co ...

to enable the DPRK to sell its non-ferrous metals and other mineral products at the most advantageous prices, and purchased inexpensive Japanese consumer goods for re-export to the

Comecon The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (, ; English abbreviation COMECON, CMEA, CEMA, or CAME) was an economic organization from 1949 to 1991 under the leadership of the Soviet Union that comprised the countries of the Eastern Bloc along wi ...

countries. Chongryon supporters are thought to control as much as one third of the

industry in Japan. An important function of these enterprises is earning hard currency to be remitted to Pyongyang. These remittances have been estimated at between $600 million and $1.9 billion each year but are probably much lower. Chongryon announced plans on 17 March 2010 to open three restaurants in Pyongyang; each restaurant will be managed by the main headquarter in Tokyo, the Kantō regional chapter, and the

Kinki The or the , lies in the southern-central region of Japan's main island Honshu, Honshū. The region includes the Prefectures of Japan, prefectures of Nara Prefecture, Nara, Wakayama Prefecture, Wakayama, Kyoto Prefecture, Kyoto, Osaka Prefectur ...

Tōkai Tōkai ( 東海, literally ''East Sea'') in Japanese may refer to: * Tōkai region, a subregion of Chūbu * Tōkai, Ibaraki, a village, also known as "Tokaimura" (Tokai-village) * Tōkai, Aichi, a city * Tōkai University, a private university in T ...

regional chapter. Chongryon publishes the ''

Choson Sinbo The ''Choson Sinbo'' (''Chosun Shinbo''), also known by the name of its English edition ''The People's Korea'', is a newspaper based in Japan, published in both Korean and Japanese. The name literally means ' Chosun (Korea) Newspaper'. It is p ...

'' newspaper as well as magazines and other publications. Websites run by Chongryon-affiliated organisations include the English-language ''

People's Korea The ''Choson Sinbo'' (''Chosun Shinbo''), also known by the name of its English edition ''The People's Korea'', is a newspaper based in Japan, published in both Korean and Japanese. The name literally means 'Chosun (Korea) Newspaper'. It is publ ...

''. Chongryon also runs cultural activities and sports teams representing its members. Chongryon organises trips by members to North Korea, usually to visit relatives, as well as educational visits for students of Korean schools. They operated ''

Man Gyong Bong 92 The ''Man Gyong Bong 92'' is a cargo-passenger ferry, named after a hill near Pyongyang. The ferry was built in 1992 with funds from Chongryon, the pro-North Korean General Association of Korean Residents in Japan, and was used to transport passe ...

'', a passenger and cargo ferry which linked Niigata in Japan to

Wonsan Wŏnsan (), previously known as Wŏnsanjin (), Port Lazarev, and Genzan (), is a port city and naval base located in Kangwŏn Province, North Korea, along the eastern side of the Korean Peninsula, on the Sea of Japan and the provincial capital. ...

in North Korea, which served as the only direct link between the two countries, and is a subject of much controversy. The ferry was barred from entering the Japanese port for six months in response to North Korea's July 2006 missile tests and was banned indefinitely following the 2006 North Korean nuclear test. The Congress, the highest legislative organ of Chongryon, has met every three years since 1961 to discuss its agenda, the election of key leaders and its budget.

Interaction with DePauw University

In January 2019,

Korea University Korea University (KU, ) is a private research university in Seoul, South Korea, established in 1905. The university is included as one of the SKY universities, a popular acronym referring to Korea's three most prestigious universities. The ...

—Chongryon's only higher educational institution—hosted its first exchange program with US students from

DePauw University DePauw University is a private liberal arts university in Greencastle, Indiana. It has an enrollment of 1,972 students. The school has a Methodist heritage and was originally known as Indiana Asbury University. DePauw is a member of both the G ...

. The program was organized by DePauw University Professor Derek Ford, West Chester University of Pennsylvania Professor Curry Malott and Kiyul Chung, a Professor at Korea University, the only person born in the southern half of the peninsula to teach at

Kim Il-Sung University Kim Il-sung University, founded on 1 October 1946, is the first university built in North Korea. It is located on a campus in Pyongyang, the nation's capital. Along with the main academic buildings, the campus contains 10 separate offices, 50 l ...

in the DPRK, and founder of the 21st Century International Relations Institute. A total of 14 US students and two US professors went on the trip, where they spent time with Korea University students and professors, as well as primary, middle, and high school students from other Chongryon affiliated schools. Additionally, they met with Chongryon chapters and toured important cultural sites of Koreans in Japan, including the infamous tunnels the Japanese forced Koreans to dig during World War II. The DePauw students were "the first-ever group of US students to visit the schools and institutions of Chongryon, the General Association of Korean Residents in Japan." The trip was wildly successful. ''

'' ran several articles, including one that predicted the warming and normalization between the US and DPRK that was framed around the US-Koreans in Japan exchange. Jung Da Min of the ''

Korea Times ''The Korea Times'' is the oldest of three English-language newspapers published daily in South Korea. It is a sister paper of the ''Hankook Ilbo'', a major Korean language daily; both are owned by Dongwha Enterprise, a wood-based manufacturer ...

'' wrote that the article "was written on the occasion of U.S. university students' visit to the pro-Pyongyang Korea University in the Japanese capital, and highlighted improving relations between the two countries on the government and non-government level." It further noted that "Professor Ford also held an English lecture for students of the two universities on the subject of the history of North Koreans in Japan over the past 70 years following liberation from Japanese occupation." An article in the ''World Tribune'' similarly wrote that "Choson Sinbo's report also noted that a group of U.S. university students visited the (pro-Pyongyang) Korea University in Tokyo... The students’ were led by Professor Derek Ford of DePauw University in Indiana. It was the first student exchange between DePauw University and Korea University through their joint project titled 'Int’l Student Exchange Program: ISEP.' The U.S. delegation was comprised 14 students and two professors. They toured the university’s campus, museum and historic sites from Japanese colonial rule, such as a site of Korean forced labor." In 2020, Professor Ford delivered a lecture at the Regular Study Group of the Juche Idea based on his previous lecture on the ''Groundings'' podcast in 2018 and at Korea University in 2016 and 2019. The meeting focused on

Kim Jong-un Kim Jong-un (; , ; born 8 January 1982) is a North Korean politician who has been Supreme Leader of North Korea since 2011 and the leader of the Workers' Party of Korea (WPK) since 2012. He is a son of Kim Jong-il, who was North Korea's sec ...

's recent New Year's Speech. The International Institute of the Juche Idea's journal notes that Ford was introduced by Recter Han, who read "a note written by a student from the US who had visited the said University last year. His honest impressions were written in such a way as that he was resentful when he first learned of the unreasonable policies of the Japanese and US governments on the DPRK, and that he was determined to change his wrong recognition and his previous attitude toward the DPRK." The journal continues to describe Ford's talk as focusing on how, "In the 1950s, the DPRK gave the first blow to the US. Likely, there emerged a tendency of anti-US imperialism on a worldwide scale. However, the collapse of the Soviet Union accelerated the tendency of anti-revolution instead. Under those circumstances, the US came to establish a unilateral supremacy, it has been weakened gradually though. Whereas the Soviet Union collapsed, the DPRK has made a great stride on the basis of the Juche idea. Truly, things Korea should be decided by the Korean people themselves. And it is the WPK that takes full responsibility for the destiny of the Korean people." The trip was so successful that Korea University welcomed DePauw University back in January 2020. The plans to repeat the trip in January 2021 were postponed because of

COVID-19 Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a contagious disease caused by a virus, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The first known case was COVID-19 pandemic in Hubei, identified in Wuhan, China, in December ...

, although the trip will resume as soon as the travel restrictions are lifted.

First Academic Peace Delegation to Chongryon

In the first official U.S. delegation since the Japanese government lifted travel restrictions, the "First Academic Peace Delegation" visited Chongryon between November 20–26, 2022. Composed of professors and students from the

University of Indianapolis The University of Indianapolis (UIndy) is a private United Methodist Church-affiliated university in Indianapolis, Indiana. It offers Associate, Bachelor's, Master's, and Doctoral degrees. It was founded in 1902 as Indiana Central University and ...

West Chester University of Pennsylvania West Chester University (also known as West Chester, WCU, or WCUPA, and officially as West Chester University of Pennsylvania) is a public research university in and around West Chester, Pennsylvania. The university is accredited by the Middle ...

, and

, the delegation visited several Chongryon institutions and, additionally, testified at the

National Diet The is the national legislature of Japan. It is composed of a lower house, called the House of Representatives (Japan), House of Representatives (, ''Shūgiin''), and an upper house, the House of Councillors (Japan), House of Councillors (, ...

and spoke at the protest outside of the

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology The , also known as MEXT or Monka-shō, is one of the eleven Ministries of Japan that composes part of the executive branch of the Government of Japan. Its goal is to improve the development of Japan in relation with the international community ...

in support of Korean schools in Japan.

Membership

Chongryon members primarily consist of those who have retained their registration as Joseon nationals (Japanese: ''Chōsen-seki''), instead of taking or being born with Japanese or South Korean nationality. Joseon nationality was a legal status that the Japanese government defined in the aftermath of World War II, when the government of the Korean peninsula was in an undetermined state. Prior to the end of World War II, Korea was administered by the Japanese government as being part of Japan, thus the legal nationality of Koreans, both in Japan and in Korea, was Japanese. Five other senior Chongryon officials are also members of the

Supreme People's Assembly The Supreme People's Assembly (SPA; ) is the unicameral legislature of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (DPRK), commonly known as North Korea. It consists of one deputy from each of the DPRK's 687 constituencies, elected to five-year ...

(North Korea's parliament). The PSIA reported that Chongryon had 70,000 members in 2016.

Korean schools

Chongryon operates 140 ethnic Korean schools (''Chōsen gakkō'' or ''chosǒn hakkyo'' ) across Japan, including kindergartens and one university,

, initially partly funded by the North Korean government. All lessons and all conversation in the school are conducted in Korean. They teach a strong pro-North Korean ideology and allegiance to

Kim Jong-il Kim Jong-il (; ; ; born Yuri Irsenovich Kim;, 16 February 1941 – 17 December 2011) was a North Korean politician who was the second supreme leader of North Korea from 1994 to 2011. He led North Korea from the 1994 death of his father Kim ...

and

. They are not classified as regular schools under Japanese law as they do not follow the national curriculum. Their militant stance is increasingly coming under criticism from pupils, parents and the public alike. The number of pupils receiving ethnic education from Chongryon-affiliated schools has declined sharply in recent years, down to about 10,000 in 2009 from a high of 46,000 in the early 1970s, with many, if not most, Zainichi now opting to send their children to mainstream Japanese schools. , there were 12 Chosen high schools with an enrollment of about 2,000 students. The schools were initially funded by North Korea, but this money has dried up. Today funding comes partly from local Japanese authorities, and many schools are facing financial difficulties. The Japanese government has refused Chongryon's requests that it fund Korean schools, citing Article 89 of the

Japanese Constitution The Constitution of Japan (Shinjitai: , Kyūjitai: , Hepburn: ) is the constitution of Japan and the supreme law in the state. Written primarily by American civilian officials working under the Allied occupation of Japan, the constitution ...

, according to which use of public funds for education by "schemes not under public control" is prohibited. Chongryon calls this an act of racial discrimination. Funding from local authorities usually takes place in the form of special benefits paid to the families of pupils, as opposed to paying the schools directly, to avoid a blatant breach of Article 89. Mindan has also traditionally operated a school system for the children of its members, although it has been always less widespread and organized compared to its Chongryon counterpart. Another issue is the high school equivalency examination, ''daiken'', that qualifies those who have not graduated from a regular high school to apply for a place in a state university and take an entrance exam. Until recently, only those who had completed compulsory education (i.e., up to junior high school) were entitled to take the ''daiken''; this meant pupils of ethnic schools had to do extra courses before being allowed to take the exam. In 1999 the requirement was amended so that anyone over a certain age is qualified. Campaigners were not satisfied because this still meant graduates of non-Japanese high schools had to take the ''daiken''. In 2003, the Education Ministry removed the requirement to take the equivalency test from graduates of Chinese schools, Mindan-run Korean schools and international schools affiliated with Western nations and accredited by American and British organisations. However, this did not apply to graduates of Chongryon schools, saying it could not approve their curricula. The decision was left up to individual universities, 70% of which allowed Chongryon school graduates to apply directly. The North Korean government sponsored Chongryon schools for 50 years with "funds for educational support" and "scholarships" totaling around 46 billion yen. The Japanese government has proposed covering the tuition for all private high schools in Japan, with the exception of the Chosen schools. As the Chosen high schools are not being covered by the tuition support, there have been conflicts within the Chongryon whether to make amendments to school policies or keep them as is. The

Zaitokukai Zaitokukai, full name , is an ultra-nationalist and far-right extremist political organization in Japan, which calls for an end to state welfare and alleged privileges afforded to Zainichi Koreans. It has been described by the National Police A ...

received criticism from the District Court for harassing Chongryon-affiliated schoolchildren.

Decline in membership

Until the 1970s, Chongryon was the dominant Zainichi group, and in some ways remains more politically significant today in Japan. However, the widening disparity between the political and economic conditions of the two Koreas has since made

, the pro-South Korean group, the larger and less politically controversial faction. In general, Chongryon is a declining organization primarily maintained by older Zainichi Chosenjin who appreciate the contributions the organization and the North Korean government has made to their lives, regardless of present political conditions. In comparison, third- and fourth-generation Zainichi Chosenjin have largely given up active participation or loyalty to the Chongryon ideology. Reasons stated for this increased disassociation include widespread mainstream tolerance of Koreans by Japanese in recent years, greatly reducing the need to rely on Chongryon, and the increasing unpopularity of

during his later years even among loyal members of Chongryon. Many Zainichi Chosenjin also felt deeply betrayed by the North Korean government's recent admission that it had kidnapped at least 13 Japanese citizens over the years, because Chongryon had been categorically and fiercely denying for many years that the abductions had ever taken place. Whether the officials of Chongryon knew of the kidnappings or not, ordinary members of Chongryon who had believed the party line felt deeply humiliated and disillusioned upon discovering that they had been used as mouthpieces to deny serious wrongdoing by North Korea.

Controversies over Chongryon

For a long time, Chongryon enjoyed unofficial immunity from searches and investigations, partly out of respect for its role as North Korea's ''de facto'' embassy, and partly due to its power as a political pressure group. However, escalating tensions between Japan and North Korea over a number of issues, namely its nuclear weapons programme and its abduction of Japanese nationals has led to a resurgence of public animosity against Chongryon due to its active support of the Pyongyang regime. Acts which Chongryon officials are suspected of include illicit transfer of funds to North Korea, espionage, and smuggling of technology and missile parts. Since allegations of Pyongyang's nuclear weapons programme first surfaced in the early 1990s, Chongryon has frequently reported being targeted by hate mail, malicious phone calls, and numerous incidents. Chongryon facilities have also frequently been sites of protests by Japanese right-wing groups. There have been numerous incidents of students of Chongryon schools, identifiable by their uniforms based on traditional Korean costumes, suffering verbal abuse. Furthermore, around May and June 1994 there was a series of physical assaults on Chongryon students in which their uniforms were cut; this was reported heavily in the Japanese media and triggered a Ministry of Justice investigation. The investigation determined that the students had cut their own uniforms. In 1998, a petrol bomb was thrown at Chongryon's headquarters in Tokyo, causing minor damage. In June 2003, a shot was fired into a Chongryon warehouse in Niigata, hitting cargo waiting to be loaded onto '' Mangyongbong-92''. In October 2006 in the aftermath of North Korea's first nuclear test, a suspected arson attack damaged a bamboo grove inside Chongryon's school in

Mito Mito may refer to: Places *Mito, Ibaraki, capital city of Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan *Mito, Aichi, a Japanese town *Mito, Shimane, a Japanese town * Mitō, Yamaguchi, a Japanese town * Mito District, a district in the province of Concepción, Per ...

. A 15-year-old female student was pelted with eggs at the school the same day. The Japanese authorities have recently started to crack down on Chongryon activities, moves usually criticised by Chongryon as acts of political suppression. The first raid on Chongryon facilities was in 1994, when a rally held in

Osaka is a designated city in the Kansai region of Honshu in Japan. It is the capital of and most populous city in Osaka Prefecture, and the third most populous city in Japan, following Special wards of Tokyo and Yokohama. With a population of 2. ...

by Rescue the North Korean People! (RENK), a Japanese citizens group set up to help refugees and demand democracy and

human rights in North Korea The human rights record of North Korea is often considered to be the worst in the world and has been globally condemned, with the United Nations, the European Union and groups such as Human Rights Watch all critical of the country's record. Most ...

, was attacked and broken up by a 100-strong mob. Police investigations revealed that the disruption was orchestrated by Chongryon. In November 2001, police raided the Tokyo headquarters of Chongryon and its Tokyo regional office as part of an investigation into alleged embezzlement by one of it senior officials. This followed an arrest of Kang Young-kwan, 66, a member of Chongryon's central standing committee and a former head of its financial bureau, among other Chongryon officials, who admitted diverting $6.5 million on behalf of Chongryon from the Tokyo Chogin, a credit union set up to serve pro-North Korean residents which failed in 1999. About 400 Chongryon supporters scuffled with police after they gathered in protest at what they called an act of political suppression and racial discrimination. In 2002, Shotaro Tochigi, deputy head of the

told a session of the House of Representatives Financial Affairs Committee that the agency is investigating Chongryon for suspected illicit transfers of funds to the North. In 2003, a North Korean defector made a statement to the US Senate committee stating that more than 90% of the parts used by North Korea to construct its missiles were brought from Japan aboard '' Mangyongbong-92'', a Chongryon-operated ship which is the only regular direct link between North Korea and Japan. In 2003, The Associated Press reported that Japanese authorities are preparing to charge a 72-year-old former senior member of Chongryon who was engaged in espionage activities for using false identity. It was claimed that espionage instructions were relayed to him by the captain of ''Man Gyong Bong 92''. Prime Minister

Junichiro Koizumi Junichiro Koizumi (; , ''Koizumi Jun'ichirō'' ; born 8 January 1942) is a former Japanese politician who was Prime Minister of Japan and President of the Liberal Democratic Party (LDP) from 2001 to 2006. He retired from politics in 2009. He is ...

told reporters "We must watch (the vessel) closely lest it be used for crime." In July 2003, the

Tokyo Metropolitan Government The is the government of the Tokyo Metropolis. One of the 56 prefectures of Japan, the government consists of a popularly elected governor and assembly. The headquarters building is located in the ward of Shinjuku. The metropolitan government ...

reversed a decision made in 1972 by the

Marxist Marxism is a Left-wing politics, left-wing to Far-left politics, far-left method of socioeconomic analysis that uses a Materialism, materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to understand S ...

Governor

Ryokichi Minobe was a Japanese politician who served as Governor of Tokyo from 1967 to 1979. He is one of the best known socialist figures in modern Japanese history. Early life Minobe was born in Tokyo. His father, Tatsukichi Minobe, was a noted constitutional ...

to exempt Chongryon from property tax. Chongryon refused to pay, resulting in seizure of three Chongryon properties. In March 2006, following a ruling by Fukuoka High Court, the Internal Affairs Ministry instructed prefectural governments across Japan to review any property tax exemptions on Chongryon properties. Some local authorities resisted the move. In March 2006, police raided six Chongryon-related facilities in an investigation into the circumstances surrounding the June 1980 disappearance of one of the alleged abductees, Tadaaki Hara. Police spokesman said that the head of Chongryon at the time is suspected of co-operating in his kidnap. In May 2006, Chongryon and the pro-South Mindan agreed to reconcile, only for the agreement to break down the following month due to Mindan's distrust of Chongryon. North Korea's missile tests in July 2006 have deepened the divide, with Chongryon refusing to condemn the missile tests, expressing only its regret that the Japanese government has suspended the operation of the ''Man Gyong Bong 92''. Outraged senior Mindan officials joined mainstream Japanese politicians and media in sharply criticizing Chongryon's silence over the matter. In November 2006, police raided the Chongryon's Tokyo headquarters in an investigation behind an attempt to illegally export 60 bags of intravenous solutions to North Korea. The solution was intercepted by Japanese customs as they were taken aboard ''Man Gyong Bong 92''. It was reported that the solutions could have been used to make biological weapons, a claim denied by Chongryon. Crowds of Chongryon supporters tried to block access to the building, leading to deployment of riot police. In February 2007, police in Hokkaido raided ten locations linked to Chongryon, including its Hokkaido head office in Sapporo and a famous mutton

yakiniku ''Yakiniku'' (焼き肉 or 焼肉), meaning " grilled meat", is a Japanese term that, in its broadest sense, refers to grilled meat cuisine. "Yakiniku" originally referred to western "barbecue" food, the term being popularized by Japanese writer ...

restaurant owned by a senior Chongryon official in

Susukino is a red-light district in Chūō-ku, Sapporo, Hokkaidō, Japan. It is one of the major red-light districts in Japan along with Kabukichō, Tokyo, and Nakasu, Fukuoka. Currently, the district is congested with many restaurants, bars, hotels, and ...

, Sapporo, over alleged tax evasion amounting to tens of millions of yen. Four people, including the restaurant owner and a senior official of Chongryon's Sapporo chamber of commerce and industry, were arrested. Also in February 2007, Police raided several locations including Chongryon's Hyogo headquarters in

Kobe Kobe ( , ; officially , ) is the capital city of Hyōgo Prefecture Japan. With a population around 1.5 million, Kobe is Japan's seventh-largest city and the third-largest port city after Tokyo and Yokohama. It is located in Kansai region, whic ...

, and arrested three people, including Song Gi-hwan, who heads the accounting division of Chongryon's Hyogo chamber of commerce and industry, over alleged unlicensed accounting. Riot police scuffled with a crowd of Chongryon supporters who gathered in protest. Footage of the raids were later released by Chongryon. On 3 March 2007, thousands of Chongryon members staged a rally in

Hibiya Park Hibiya Park (日比谷公園 ''Hibiya Kōen'') is a park in Chiyoda City, Tokyo, Japan. It covers an area of 161,636.66 m2 (40 acres) between the east gardens of the Imperial Palace to the north, the Shinbashi district to the southeast and the K ...

in protest against police investigations into the organisation and bullying of schoolchildren, which they called "political suppression and human rights abuses" by the Japanese authorities. The protesters, who numbered between 3000 (according to local media) and 7000 (according to Chongryon), staged a 2.9 km-long march wielding posters of the North Korean leader Kim Jong-il. Chongryon's number two, Nam Sung-u was quoted as saying "Japan's violations of human rights against the DPRK and Koreans in Japan cannot be allowed, no matter what". The Tokyo Metropolitan Government attempted to ban the protest fearing violence but they were overruled by a court ruling. Riot police scuffled with Japanese ultranationalist groups who had gathered in counterprotest resulting in one arrest. In June 2007, it was reported that Chongryon attempted to sell its main headquarters to Shigetake Ogata, (ex-head of the

who now leads an investment firm) due to financial troubles and tensions with the Japanese government, however, creditors moved to block the sale in court and, according to North Korea's official news service article of 22 June 2007, the courts granted a Japanese collection agency the right to dispose of the property. As of 2014, Japanese courts have blocked a Mongolian company from buying the Chongryon building. On 28 May 2022,

sent a 10,000-character letter to the members. However, in late October, a Japanese memoir ''Farewell: 77 Years Struggling of Chongryon and Mindan'' () is published, in which the author described his actions to go against

for being mislead by Chongryon, and expressed his apologize to Mindan.

Chongryon Affiliates

* 3

Kindergartens Kindergarten is a preschool educational approach based on playing, singing, practical activities such as drawing, and social interaction as part of the transition from home to school. Such institutions were originally made in the late 18th cent ...

* 19 Elementary schools * 34 Combined elementary and

junior high schools A middle school (also known as intermediate school, junior high school, junior secondary school, or lower secondary school) is an educational stage which exists in some countries, providing education between primary school and secondary school. ...

* 5 Combined elementary, junior high, and high schools * 2 Junior high schools * 3 Combined junior and senior high schools * 4 High schools * 1 University –

* 1 Academy – * 8 Banks * 1 Insurance company – Kumgang Insurance Company * 12 Art groups :* Chongryon Film Studio :* Korean Literature and Art Studio :* Korean Music Studio :* :* Tokyo Korean Song and Dance Ensemble :* Northern Kanto Song and Dance Ensemble :* Tokai Korean Song and Dance Ensemble :* Kyoto Korean Song and Dance Ensemble :* Osaka Korean Song and Dance Ensemble :* Hyogo Korean Song and Dance Ensemble :* Hiroshima Song and Dance Ensemble :* Kyoshyo Song and Dance Ensemble * Commercial enterprises :* Chugai Travel :* Korean—Japanese Export-Import Trading Company :* Donghae Commercial Company :* Korean Speciality Treading Company :* Chiyoda International Treading Company :* Kongtong Hungye Company :* Kyonghwa Commercial Company :* Runghung Merchant Company :* Near Ocean Transportation Company :* Haeyang Medicine Company * * Zainichi Korean Business and Industry League * Zainichi Korean Youth Business and Industry Association * Zainichi Korean Teachers' League * Korean Central Education Association in Japan * United Zainichi Korean Credit Association * * Zainichi Korean Comment Publisher Association * Zainichi Korean Social Scientist Association * Zainichi Korean Health Association * Zainichi Korean Literature and Art League * Korean Art Research Institute * Zainichi Korean Sport League * * Korean Overseas Student League in Japan * Zainichi Korean Student Committee * Zainichi Korean Religious League * Zainichi Korean Buddhist Association * Zainichi Korean Historicism and Archaeology Association * Korean Democratic Woman Association in Japan * * Korean Reunification Comrades' Association in Japan * Korean Peace Upholding Committee in Japan *

Publishing House * Haku Sopang * Korean Youth Society * Korean Issue Research Institute * Chongryon Unified Enterprise Propulsion Committee * Compatriots' Marriage Introducing Center

Notes

References

External links

* * Charles Scanlon
Identity crisis for Japan's Koreans

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, 25 November 2002. * . Journeyman Pictures, 7 January 2015. {{Authority control Organizations based in Tokyo De facto embassies Japan–North Korea relations Anti-Japanese sentiment in Korea Anti-Korean sentiment in Japan Zainichi Korean culture Identity politics in Japan Identity politics in Korea Far-left politics in Japan Communism in Japan 1955 establishments in Japan Organizations established in 1955 Diaspora organizations of political parties