Names
The Iowa tribe refers to their language as Báxoje ich'é or Bah Kho Je (pronounced ). The Otoe-Missouria dialect is called Jíwere ich'é (pronounced ). The spelling ''Chiwere'', used mostly by linguists, derives from the fact that the language has an aspiration distinction rather than a voice distinction (see the phonology section below), so that the unaspirated stops are variably voiced or unvoiced . Although is a valid pronunciation of the first sound of ''Jiwere ~ Chiwere'', it may mislead English speakers into pronouncing it . Similarly, a commonStatus
The last two fluent speakers died in the winter of 1996, and only a handful of semi-fluent speakers remain, all of whom are elderly, making Chiwere critically endangered. As of 2006, an estimated four members of the Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Indians still speak the language, while 30 members of thePhonology
The phoneme inventory of Chiwere consists of approximately 33 consonants, and five vowel qualities (three of which occur as nasalized).Consonants
The phoneme has a number of variants and allophones. It can appear as a dental tap or flap (especially word-medially), as an alveolar fricative (as in Spanish), as an (inter)dental fricative , as a lateral , as a nasal , or as a voiced dental plosive . The velar nasal phoneme does not occur word-initially, being confined to "medial position after a nasal vowel."Whitman, 1947, p. 235Phoneme combinations
In languages there are certain clusters of phonemes that show up in particular environments within a word. According to William Whitman's research of Chiwere, there are approximately 23 known consonant clusters which are word medial and approximately 14 of these show up word initially or word medially. In this research it has been found that the stop + stop consonant cluster ''čd'', as in ''áčda'' ('then'),Whitman, 1947, p. 236 shows up in the word medial position but not as a word initial phoneme cluster. The stop + spirant clusters ''ʔθ'', ''ʔs'', and ''ʔh'' all show up word initially and word medially, whereas the stop + semivowel clusters ''dw'' and ''gw'' only show up word medially. The stop + liquid clusters ''bl'' and ''gl'' show up word initially and word medially. Spirant + stop clusters generally appear in both word initial and word medial position, these clusters include ''θg'', ''sǰ'', ''sg'', ''hd'', and ''hg'', however the spirant + stop clusters ''sd'' and ''xd'' only appear word medially. These are all the spirant + stop clusters accounted for in the research of William Whitman, however, the spirant + stop cluster ''hk'' has been found to exist word medially, as in ''chéthka'' ('domestic cow'). According to Whitman's research there are two spirant + nasal consonant clusters that have been found, which are ''hm'', as in ''sáhmã'' ('seven') and ''hn'', as in ''láhnũwe'' ('calumet'), however Whitman does account that ''hñ'' is a combination which appears as a future tense suffix. After reviewing further data, the cluster ''hñ'' has been found in the word medial position, as in ''péhñi'' ('whiskey') and thus appears to be another possible spirant + nasal consonant combination. The stop + semivowel consonant clusters ''θw'', ''xw'', and ''hw'' all appear to be restricted to the word medial environment, whereas the stop + semivowel consonant cluster ''sw'' appears to be the only stop + semivowel known to show up both word initially, as in ''swá̃la'' ('to be soft') and ''baswá'' ('to cut piece off'). The stop + liquid phoneme clusters ''θl'', ''sl'', and ''xl'' have all been found in the word initial and word medial environments.=Cluster metamorphosis and phenomenon
= An interesting analysis of the Chiwere language has shown that the spirant + stop consonant cluster ''hg'' is the more commonly used pronunciation of the spirant + stop cluster ''θg'' and that the ''hg'' cluster may be replacing the ''θg'' altogether. In William Whitman's research, the spirant + stop combination ''xd'', with the one given example used in this journal being ''iblí̃xdo'' ('blackbird'), is mentioned as being an error for the spirant + stop combination ''hd''. But the spirant + stop combination ''xd'' has also been found in the words ''chéxdó'' ('buffalo bull'), ''náxda'' ('sour'), and ''náxdage'' ('kick'). With this data we can see that the consonant cluster ''xd'' is a possible combination and can show up in word medial position.Vowels
Chiwere has five oral vowel phonemes, , and threeGrammar
Chiwere grammar is Agglutinative language, agglutinative; its verbal complex is central to the structure of the language.Whitman 1947, p. 241. Verbs are formed by addition variousVerbal complex
The verbal complex is formed of preverbal and postverbal affixes, with preverbal affixes communicating positional, instrumental and pronominal elements. These are added to a verb stem, which can be mono-, duo- or polysyllabic, and either agent ( transitive) or patient ( intransitive). Most verb stems are passive. Altogether, the Chiwere verb complex is arranged as follows:Positional prefixes
Positional prefixes occupy the first position in the verbal complex. These prefixes refer to the location or direction of the verb's action:GoodTracks 2002 *a- on, upon, over *i- at, to, by *u- in, within, intoPronominal prefixes
Chiwere distinguishes three persons – first, second and inclusive, which functions as an inclusive first person plural. Each person has an agent (subject) and patient (object) form. The agent forms mark the subjects of active verbs, whereas the patient forms mark the objects of active verbs and the subjects of passive verbs, making Chiwere, like many other Siouan languages, active-stative. Third person forms as they exist in English are not directly marked. Following are the subject and object forms of the pronominal prefixes: *First Person: ha- hi- *Second Person: ra- ri- *Inclusive: hi- wa-wa- (note that the inclusive object form is spelled "wa-wa" because it can be separated by the positional prefixes) The plural forms of these pronominal forms are expressed via a combination of the above listed prefixes with suffixes. Thus: *First Person: hi-…wi, wa-wa…wi *Second Person: ra-…wi, ri-…wi *Inclusive (pl.): …wi, wa- *Inclusive: …ñe, wa-…wiWa- prefix
This prefix, perhaps best translated as "something," occurs before every other verbal element except for the pronominal ''hi''-, and approximates the English third person plural object of a transitive verb. Additionally, the prefix can be used as a dummy pronoun to make transitive verbs intransitive; these verbal forms are often used as nouns, and this prefix is thus the general method of forming nouns from verb stems. There are several intransitive verbs that take the ''wa''- prefix idiomatically, wherein the prefix has no literal meaning.Whitman 1947, p. 244.Reflexive prefix
Verbs are made reflexive by the "ki-" prefix;Directional prefixes
These three prefixes serve to indicate an indirect object and as such are grouped together, even though they do not occupy the same position within the verbal complex: *wa- indicates that the action moves away from a third point not occupied by the speaker *gi- indicates that the action moves towards a third point and communicates the English prepositions of to, for or concerning *gla- indicates that the action reverts towards the subject and is used to form possessive constructionsInstrumental prefixes
There are nine separate prefixes that indicateCausative suffix
TheTense
" Tense" in Chiwere can be divided into present/past and future. Present and past tenses are unmarked in the language, and are distinguished by actual statements of time using words like "yesterday" or "today." The future tense is indicated with the particle ''hnye'', which follows the verb.Wistrand-Robinson, et al 1977, p. 97.Personal pronouns
Chiwere is a pro-drop language; once the subject of the sentence has been established, it can be omitted. *First Person: mi'e (sing.), hi'e (inc.) *Second Person: ri'e *Third Person: aléNegation
Statements are negated with the particle ''skunyi'', which follows the verb.Commands
Commands are formed using the simple verb stem plus a gender-specific particle – le for male speakers and lé for female speakers.Classes
The Otoe-Missouria Tribe of Oklahoma's Otoe Language Program teaches weekly classes in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, and Red Rock, Oklahoma.See also
*Notes
References
*GoodTracks, Jimm G. (2010). ''Iowa, Otoe-Missouria Language Dictionary: English / Báxoje-Jiwére-Ñútˀačhi ~ Maʔúŋke''. (Revised Edition). Center for the Study of the Languages of the Plains and Southwest. *GoodTracks, Jimm G. (2007). ''Iowa, Otoe-Missouria Language Dictionary: English / Báxoje-Jiwére-Ñútˀačhi ~ Maʔúŋke''. (Revised Edition). Center for the Study of the Languages of the Plains and Southwest. *GoodTracks, Jimm G. (2002). Ioway-Otoe Verb Composition: Elements of the Verb and Conjugations. (Revised Edition). Ioway Cultural Institute. *Whitman, William. (1947). "Descriptive Grammar of Ioway-Oto." ''International Journal of American Linguistics'', 13 (4): 233-248. *Wistrand-Robinson, Lila, et al. (1977). ''Jiwele-Baxoje Wan'shige Ukenye Ich'e Otoe-Iowa Indian Language – Book I''. Jiwele Baxoje Language Project.External links