The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse or common sandgrouse (''Pterocles exustus'') is a species of
sandgrouse
Sandgrouse is the common name for Pteroclidae , a family of sixteen species of bird, members of the order Pterocliformes . They are traditionally placed in two genera. The two central Asian species are classified as '' Syrrhaptes'' and the othe ...
. It is a sedentary and nomadic species that ranges from northern and central Africa and further east towards western and southern Asia. There are six recognised subspecies.
[Gouraud, C., Frahnert, S., Gamauf, A., & van der Mije, S. (2016). Review of the type series of Pterocles exustus Temminck, 1825 (Aves, Pterocliformes, Pteroclidae) and designation of a lectotype. Zookeys, 580, 145-152. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.580.7892]
The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse is
sexually dimorphic
Sexual dimorphism is the condition where the sexes of the same animal and/or plant species exhibit different morphological characteristics, particularly characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most ani ...
in
plumage colouration and varies in overall plumage colouration between the six subspecies.
The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse is a bird of barren, semi-deserts. It is heavily reliant on water, despite living in hot, arid climates and is known to travel up to 50 miles (80 kilometres) in a day to search for water.
[GRID-Arendal. (2015). Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse (Pterocles exustus), Amboseli National Park, Kenya. (2015). Retrieved from https://www.grida.no/resources/2320]
Chestnut-bellied sandgrouse are selective feeders which primarily subsist on seeds, often preferring to consume small seeds in large amounts.
Taxonomy
The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse is a species of sandgrouse placed in the genus
Pterocles
''Pterocles '' is a genus of near passerine birds in the sandgrouse family. It includes all the species in the family except for two central Asian species in '' Syrrhaptes''
These sandgrouse have small, pigeon-like heads and necks, but sturdy co ...
.
Sandgrouse belong to the family
Pteroclididae, which belongs to the order
Pteroclidiformes.
[Tschudin, A., Arif, A., & Hammer, A. (2008). Investigation of causes of mortality in captive Chestnut Bellied Sandgrouse (Pterocles exustus ellioti) at Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation from 2001 to 2006. In 7th Congress of the European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians (pp. 435-440). Leipzig, Germany: The European Association of Zoo and Wildlife Veterinarians.] This means they are more closely related to pigeons and doves and are not a type of
grouse
Grouse are a group of birds from the order Galliformes, in the family Phasianidae. Grouse are presently assigned to the tribe Tetraonini (formerly the subfamily Tetraoninae and the family Tetraonidae), a classification supported by mitochondria ...
.
There are six recognised subspecies of chestnut-bellied sandgrouse:
* ''P. ex. exustus'':
Senegal
Senegal,; Wolof: ''Senegaal''; Pulaar: 𞤅𞤫𞤲𞤫𞤺𞤢𞥄𞤤𞤭 (Senegaali); Arabic: السنغال ''As-Sinighal'') officially the Republic of Senegal,; Wolof: ''Réewum Senegaal''; Pulaar : 𞤈𞤫𞤲𞤣𞤢𞥄𞤲𞤣𞤭 ...
,
Gambia,
Mauritania and
Sudan.
* ''P. e. floweri'': endemic to the
Nile Valley of
Egypt
Egypt ( ar, مصر , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a transcontinental country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via a land bridge formed by the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Medit ...
and thought to be extinct until its rediscovery in 2012.
* ''P. e. ellioti'': southeastern
Sudan, eastern
Eritrea, northern
Ethiopia
Ethiopia, , om, Itiyoophiyaa, so, Itoobiya, ti, ኢትዮጵያ, Ítiyop'iya, aa, Itiyoppiya officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country in the Horn of Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the ...
and
Somalia
Somalia, , Osmanya script: 𐒈𐒝𐒑𐒛𐒐𐒘𐒕𐒖; ar, الصومال, aṣ-Ṣūmāl officially the Federal Republic of SomaliaThe ''Federal Republic of Somalia'' is the country's name per Article 1 of thProvisional Constituti ...
.
* ''P. e. olivascens:'' southeastern
South Sudan
South Sudan (; din, Paguot Thudän), officially the Republic of South Sudan ( din, Paankɔc Cuëny Thudän), is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia, Sudan, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the ...
, southwestern Ethiopia,
Kenya
)
, national_anthem = " Ee Mungu Nguvu Yetu"()
, image_map =
, map_caption =
, image_map2 =
, capital = Nairobi
, coordinates =
, largest_city = Nairobi
...
and Northern
Tanzania
Tanzania (; ), officially the United Republic of Tanzania ( sw, Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania), is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It borders Uganda to the north; Kenya to the northeast; Comoro Islands ...
.
* ''P. e. erlangeri'': southwestern
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia, officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), is a country in Western Asia. It covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula, and has a land area of about , making it the fifth-largest country in Asia, the second-largest in the A ...
,
Yemen
Yemen (; ar, ٱلْيَمَن, al-Yaman), officially the Republic of Yemen,, ) is a country in Western Asia. It is situated on the southern end of the Arabian Peninsula, and borders Saudi Arabia to the Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, north and ...
and
Oman
Oman ( ; ar, عُمَان ' ), officially the Sultanate of Oman ( ar, سلْطنةُ عُمان ), is an Arabian country located in southwestern Asia. It is situated on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula, and spans the mouth of ...
.
* ''P. e. hindustan'': southeastern eastern
Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran, and also called Persia, is a country located in Western Asia. It is bordered by Iraq and Turkey to the west, by Azerbaijan and Armenia to the northwest, by the Caspian Sea and Turkmeni ...
,
Pakistan
Pakistan ( ur, ), officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan ( ur, , label=none), is a country in South Asia. It is the world's fifth-most populous country, with a population of almost 243 million people, and has the world's second-lar ...
and
India
India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: ), is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area, the second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the so ...
.
Description
![Chestnut Bellied Sandgrouse](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Chestnut_Bellied_Sandgrouse.jpg)
The birds appear as small to medium-sized, brownish sandgrouses with an elongated and pointed tail when in flight. When grounded, they appear as very short-legged birds, with a small head. They will stretch out their long necks when wary.
There are six recognised subspecies of chestnut-bellied sandgrouse. The overall plumage colouration varies between the six subspecies. The subspecies that inhabits the Nile Valley (''P. e. floweri'') have darker and greyer colouration on their heads, mantle and breasts and have less yellowish colouration on the upper wing-
coverts
A covert feather or tectrix on a bird is one of a set of feathers, called coverts (or ''tectrices''), which, as the name implies, cover other feathers. The coverts help to smooth airflow over the wings and tail. Ear coverts
The ear coverts are s ...
and scapulars than the
nominate subspecies, ''Pterocles exustus exustus'' (Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania and Sudan). ''P. e. ellioti'' (southeastern Sudan, to Somalia), ''P. e. erlangeri'' (southwestern Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman) and ''P. e. hindustan'' (Iran, Pakistan and India) are all paler and greyer than the nominate subspecies. ''P. e. olivascens'' (South Sudan to Northern Tanzania) has distinct greyer olive colouration on their upperparts and wings, with females having more heavily barred and streaked underparts than the nominate subspecies.
![Chestnut-bellied sandgrouse (Pterocles exustus)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Chestnut-bellied_sandgrouse_%28Pterocles_exustus%29.jpg)
There are six recognised subspecies of chestnut-bellied sandgrouse. The overall plumage colouration varies between the six subspecies. The subspecies, ''Pterocles exustus floweri'' that inhabits the Nile Valley have darker and greyer colouration on their heads, mantle and breasts and have less yellowish colouration on the upper wing-coverts and scapulars than the nominate subspecies, ''P. e. exustus'' (Senegal, Gambia, Mauritania and Sudan).
''P. e. ellioti'' (southeastern Sudan, to Somalia), ''P. e. erlangeri'' (southwestern Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Oman) and Pterocles exustus Hindustan (Iran, Pakistan and India) are all paler and greyer than the nominate subspecies. ''P. e. olivascens'' (South Sudan to Northern Tanzania) has distinct greyer olive colouration on their upperparts and wings, with females having more heavily barred and streaked underparts than the nominate subspecies.
![A Male and Female Chestnut Bellied Sandgrouse (49988703036)](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/A_Male_and_Female_Chestnut_Bellied_Sandgrouse_%2849988703036%29.jpg)
The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse is sexually dimorphic in colouration. The subspecies that is found in abundance in the
Thar and Sindh Deserts is easily distinguishable by plumage colouration. The male's upper parts, from the crown to upper tail are a covert
isabelline-grey/brown colour. The
lores, cheeks, chin, and throat are a dull yellow-
ochre and often tinged with orange-
buff
Buff or BUFF may refer to:
People
* Buff (surname), a list of people
* Buff (nickname), a list of people
* Johnny Buff, ring name of American world champion boxer John Lisky (1888–1955)
* Buff Bagwell, a ring name of American professional ...
that extends around the neck like a collar and shading off towards the scapular and interscapular feathers, shading into
ocherous
Ochre ( ; , ), or ocher in American English, is a natural clay earth pigment, a mixture of ferric oxide and varying amounts of clay and sand. It ranges in colour from yellow to deep orange or brown. It is also the name of the colours produced ...
-buff at the tips and edged with brown. The wing feathers are a buff or ocherous-buff shading into olive towards the inner bottom wing. The bird's upper breast is a
vinous-buff and separated by a narrow band of black boarded with white. The lower breast has a dull yellow-buff that changes gradually into a chocolate colour, with the centre of the abdomen is black. The under tail and tarsus in a creamy-buff. The centre tail is the same isabelline-grey/brown as the upper tail feathers, becoming black towards the prolonged narrow portions.
The female's upper plumage is a dull-buff streaked with dark brown marks at the back of the neck, increasing to blotches, with other parts becoming broad bars. The wing feathers are the same as the back, but the feathers are tipped broadly with buff, with some coverts edged with brown. The neck, breast and sides of the head are vinous in colour, with black spots. The lower breast is a dull pale ochre-buff, with the abdomen to the vent closely barred with dark brown. And the under-tail covert feathers are creamy buff.
The subspecies ''P. e. floweri'', which inhabits the Nile Valley, are easily distinguishable between the sexes. The males tend to have an orange tone around their necks and faces, with sharp demarcated black lines across the pale upper breast. The male's face and throat are a yellowish colour, faintly contrasted with a greyish
crown
A crown is a traditional form of head adornment, or hat, worn by monarchs as a symbol of their power and dignity. A crown is often, by extension, a symbol of the monarch's government or items endorsed by it. The word itself is used, partic ...
, neck and breast. The breast and neck of the females are heavily mottled with brown and white, lacking the black lines across the breast that the males possess.
Distribution and habitat
The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse is found across most of northern and
central Africa
Central Africa is a subregion of the African continent comprising various countries according to different definitions. Angola, Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo ...
and further east towards western and
southern Asia.
These birds are wide-stretching, inhibiting mostly the
Afrotropic
The Afrotropical realm is one of Earth's eight biogeographic realms. It includes Africa south of the Sahara Desert, the majority of the Arabian Peninsula, the island of Madagascar, southern Iran and extreme southwestern Pakistan, and the island ...
and
Indomalayan
The Indomalayan realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms. It extends across most of South and Southeast Asia and into the southern parts of East Asia.
Also called the Oriental realm by biogeographers, Indomalaya spreads all over the Indi ...
biogeographic realms.
The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse tends to prefer bare, bushy arid and sandy plains as its habitat.
The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse that can be found in India is found most abundantly in the Thar or Sindh Desert. During the summer, where water is scarce, these birds often can be found conglomerating at a single
waterhole
A waterhole is a depression in the ground in which water can collect, or a more permanent pool in the bed of an ephemeral river.
Waterhole or water hole may refer to:
* Water hole (radio), an especially quiet region of the electromagnetic spect ...
to drink in their thousands. During the rainy seasons, when water is more plentiful, the birds tend to travel in smaller flocks.
In Egypt, a subspecies (floweri) of chestnut-bellied sandgrouse was first discovered in the mid-19th century, and are found endemically in the Nile Valley. In the late 19th century, it was the most abundant species of sandgrouse inhabiting Egypt, but by 1929, they were already found to be scarce.
Before being rediscovered in 2012, the last and most recent recorded observation was from 4 March 1979. The subspecies was rediscovered by a team of Austrian and German ornithologists while working in the Egyptian Nile valley in March 2012.
Behaviour
The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse is sedentary, unlike most species of sandgrouse who are
migratory.
However, the species exhibits extensive local movements. During the summer, when water is scarce, the birds will move to nearby areas where water is still available. The birds also appear to periodically move over long distances based on the availability of food supplies.
Diet and feeding
The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse, like all species of sandgrouse, feeds on small seeds, small insects and fallen berries.
[Rahmani, A. (n.d.). The Sandgrouse has a Trick up its Belly. Retrieved from roundglass , sustain website: https://round.glass/sustain/species/sandgrouse/] Their diet primarily consists of small seeds, often consumed in large quantities, mostly from
leguminous
A legume () is a plant in the family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seed of such a plant. When used as a dry grain, the seed is also called a pulse. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption, for livestock for ...
plants.
The environment these birds tend to inhabit is often arid, and water is scarce. However, these birds water regularly every day and will tend to concentrate around available water sources. They prefer to water once a day at sunrise but have been observed to water a second time before sunset, although this is less common.
Breeding
![Chestnut-bellied-sandgrouse-famale](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Chestnut-bellied-sandgrouse-famale.jpg)
Chestnut-bellied sandgrouse are
sexually mature
Sexual maturity is the capability of an organism to reproduce. In humans it might be considered synonymous with adulthood, but here puberty is the name for the process of biological sexual maturation, while adulthood is based on cultural definiti ...
after one year following hatching. There is no information on the life span of the birds in the wild, but wild-trapped adult birds have survived up to 3 years in captivity in Nevada.
During the breeding season, males will be in new fresh brightly coloured plumage and will possess distinctive elongated central tail feathers. Females are courted with short chases and low vocalisation, and are often courted by several males at once, but will be quickly followed by one male, only after a short period.
[Jensen, S., Taha, A., & Arif, A. (2007). Husbandry of the Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse at Al Wabra Wildlife Preservation. International Zoo News, 54(2), 80-84.] The females will lay around three to six eggs in nests built into shallow scrapings in the ground when in captivity.
In the Thar and Sindh desserts, the birds also nest in shallow depressions scratched into the ground but with three eggs per nest. The nests are built out in the open with no attempts of hiding the nests.
The eggs of the sandgrouses commonly found in the Thar and Sindh deserts appear to be pale grey-stone or yellowish-stone in colour, covered in small blotches and spots of varying shades of brown, with grey and lavender coloured secondary markings. The eggs have an average size of 36.8 x 26.2mm (1.4 in x 1.0 in).
In captivity, incubation is done mainly by the female, with all the young hatching simultaneously after the end of the incubation period.
In the wild, males have been observed to incubate at night.
Once hatched, the chicks will remain near the nest for the first day or two.
In the Thar and Sindh deserts, hatchings are precocious and would leave the nest shortly after hatching.
Predators and threats
The chestnut-bellied sandgrouse appears to be highly resilient against diseases. It is not susceptible to
Newcastle disease
Virulent Newcastle disease (VND), formerly exotic Newcastle disease, is a contagious viral avian disease affecting many domestic and wild bird species; it is transmissible to humans. Though it can infect humans, most cases are non-symptomatic; ...
or
fowlpox
Fowlpox is the worldwide disease of poultry caused by viruses of the family ''Poxviridae'' and the genus ''Avipoxvirus''. The viruses causing fowlpox are distinct from one another but antigenically similar, possible hosts including chickens, tur ...
, and seems to be relatively resistant to common communicable diseases of
poultry
Poultry () are domesticated birds kept by humans for their eggs, their meat or their feathers. These birds are most typically members of the superorder Galloanserae (fowl), especially the order Galliformes (which includes chickens, quails, ...
.
Though it is known to host parasites like
pinworms
Pinworm infection (threadworm infection in the UK), also known as enterobiasis, is a human parasitic disease caused by the pinworm. The most common symptom is itching in the anal area. The period of time from swallowing eggs to the appearanc ...
, such infestations are exceedingly rare.
Falcon
Falcons () are birds of prey in the genus ''Falco'', which includes about 40 species. Falcons are widely distributed on all continents of the world except Antarctica, though closely related raptors did occur there in the Eocene.
Adult falcons ...
s are known to hunt chestnut-bellied sandgrouse at waterholes in India.
Relationship with humans
Hunting
The species was introduced by the
Nevada
Nevada ( ; ) is a state in the Western region of the United States. It is bordered by Oregon to the northwest, Idaho to the northeast, California to the west, Arizona to the southeast, and Utah to the east. Nevada is the 7th-most extensive, ...
state
game department into
Hong Kong
Hong Kong ( (US) or (UK); , ), officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China (abbr. Hong Kong SAR or HKSAR), is a city and special administrative region of China on the eastern Pearl River Delta i ...
as a trial run to see if they would be suitable as a recreational game species in Japan.
[Hawaii.gov (n.d.). PTEROCLES EXUSTUS , CHESTNUT-BELLIED SANDGROUSE. Retrieved from Hawai’i Birding Trials website: https://hawaiibirdingtrails.hawaii.gov/bird/chestnut-bellied-sandgrouse/] The birds were introduced to the islands of Hawaii,
Molokai, and
Kauai between 1961 and 1962.
The species was released in Japan, in
Pahranagat Valley
The Pahranagat Valley is a Tonopah Basin landform in Lincoln County, Nevada.
The more fertile part of Pahranagat Valley is a narrow ribbon of green (no more than wide) like an oasis in the vast Nevada desert. It is approximately long running nor ...
,
Pahrump Valley
Pahrump Valley is a Mojave Desert valley west of Las Vegas and the Spring Mountains massif in southern Nye County, Nevada, and eastern San Bernardino County, California. Pahrump, Nevada, is in the valley's center and the Tecopa and Chicago Valle ...
and
Moapa Valley
Moapa Valley is an unincorporated town in Clark County, Nevada, United States. As of the 2010 census, it had a population of 6,924. The valley in which the community lies, also named Moapa Valley, is about long and lies roughly northwest to sou ...
. The birds that were released in Pahranagat Valley in 1960 but left immediately and no further attempts to release the species there were made.
The birds were released in Pahrump and Moapa Valleys springs of 1960 and 1961. During each release, there was an initial exodus of birds, but a few remained throughout the summer to early fall. But all eventually left during the winter periods.
There were reports of two sandgrouses, both from the 1960 and 1961 releases respectively in Pahrump Valley, who were shot at
Navajoa
''Pediocactus'' (Greek: πεδίον (pedion) means "plain", "flat", "field") is a genus of cacti. The genus comprises between 6 and 11 species, depending upon the authority. Species of this genus are referred to as hedgehog cacti, though that ...
, Sonora,
Mexico
Mexico (Spanish: México), officially the United Mexican States, is a country in the southern portion of North America. It is bordered to the north by the United States; to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean; to the southeast by Guatema ...
on February 10, 1962. This indicates that these birds may have migrated towards the desert regions south from their initial release locations.
In captivity
Despite being attractive birds, they are rarely kept in captivity. This low availability may be due in part to their flightiness and the difficulties of establishing them in captivity.
A study published in 2008 found that the major contributing factor to the mortality rates of the birds in captivity comes from social stress and the flightiness of this species. The study investigated 50 dead chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse in the
Al Wabra preservation, through
autopsies
An autopsy (post-mortem examination, obduction, necropsy, or autopsia cadaverum) is a surgical procedure that consists of a thorough examination of a corpse by dissection to determine the cause, mode, and manner of death or to evaluate any d ...
, they found that 38% of the birds died from
trauma
Trauma most often refers to:
* Major trauma, in physical medicine, severe physical injury caused by an external source
* Psychological trauma, a type of damage to the psyche that occurs as a result of a severely distressing event
*Traumatic i ...
, namely head trauma as they were flying into the wire mesh of their enclosures. Another major cause of the mortalities in these birds came from
emaciation
Emaciation is defined as the state of extreme thinness from absence of body fat and muscle wasting usually resulting from malnutrition.
Characteristics
In humans, the physical appearance of emaciation includes thinned limbs, pronounced and protrud ...
. These occurred the most in chicks, as 12% of the animals had died as a result of emaciation. However, the adults were found to have poor body conditions, and it was correlated to any
chronic diseases
A chronic condition is a health condition or disease that is persistent or otherwise long-lasting in its effects or a disease that comes with time. The term ''chronic'' is often applied when the course of the disease lasts for more than three mon ...
.This indicated that one of the main causes of death was stress.
Attempts by the State of Nevada to breed these birds in captivity between 1959 and 1961 had failed. Breeding experiments were attempted on the
Utah
Utah ( , ) is a state in the Mountain West subregion of the Western United States. Utah is a landlocked U.S. state bordered to its east by Colorado, to its northeast by Wyoming, to its north by Idaho, to its south by Arizona, and to it ...
State Game Farm at
Price
A price is the (usually not negative) quantity of payment or compensation given by one party to another in return for goods or services. In some situations, the price of production has a different name. If the product is a "good" in the ...
and resulted in only one egg laid by the end of 1962.
References
External sources
Saint Louis Zoo
{{Taxonbar, from=Q127903
chestnut-bellied sandgrouse
Birds of Sub-Saharan Africa
Birds of East Africa
Birds of the Middle East
Birds of South Asia
chestnut-bellied sandgrouse