Charles De Geer (1747–1805)
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Charles De Geer (30 January 1720 – 7 March 1778) was an
entomologist Entomology (from Ancient Greek ἔντομον (''éntomon''), meaning "insect", and -logy from λόγος (''lógos''), meaning "study") is the branch of zoology that focuses on insects. Those who study entomology are known as entomologists. In ...
, industrialist, civil servant and
book collector Book collecting is the collecting of books, including seeking, locating, acquiring, organizing, cataloging, displaying, storing, and maintaining whatever books are of interest to a given collector. The love of books is '' bibliophilia'', and some ...
. He is sometimes referred to as Charles the Entomologist, to distinguish him from other relatives with the same name. Charles De Geer came from a prominent Swedish-Dutch family. Born in Sweden, he spent most of his childhood and youth in the
Dutch Republic The United Provinces of the Netherlands, commonly referred to in historiography as the Dutch Republic, was a confederation that existed from 1579 until the Batavian Revolution in 1795. It was a predecessor state of the present-day Netherlands ...
. At the age of 18 he moved back to Sweden and would spend the rest of his life there. Upon his return to Sweden, he took over the management of the
ironworks An ironworks or iron works is an industrial plant where iron is smelted and where heavy iron and steel products are made. The term is both singular and plural, i.e. the singular of ''ironworks'' is ''ironworks''. Ironworks succeeded bloome ...
of
Lövstabruk Lövstabruk is a village on a common in the parish of Österlövsta, Tierp Municipality, Uppsala County, Sweden. In 2010 it had a population of 96, compared to some 1300 at its height during the 18th century. The word ''lövsta'' is derived fro ...
. He was a successful businessman and with time became one of the richest men in Sweden, head of an early industry employing around 3,000 people. He had a successful civic career, became Marshal of the Court and was elevated to the rank of ''
friherre (; male, abbreviated as ), (; his wife, abbreviated as , ) and (, his unmarried daughters and maiden aunts) are designations used as titles of nobility in the German-speaking areas of the Holy Roman Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and in i ...
'' (baron) in 1773. De Geer had developed an interest in
natural history Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms, including animals, fungi, and plants, in their natural environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. A person who studies natural history is cal ...
and particularly entomology when he was still young. After his return to Sweden, his interest transformed into a serious scientific pursuit. He was elected a member of the
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences () is one of the Swedish Royal Academies, royal academies of Sweden. Founded on 2 June 1739, it is an independent, non-governmental scientific organization that takes special responsibility for promoting nat ...
in 1739 and a corresponding member of the
French Academy of Sciences The French Academy of Sciences (, ) is a learned society, founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, to encourage and protect the spirit of French Scientific method, scientific research. It was at the forefron ...
in 1748. He published his main work on entomology, ''Mémoires pour servir à l'histoire des insectes'', in French in eight volumes between 1752 and 1778. In it, he provided descriptions of the behaviour of over 1,400 insect species. In his writings, De Geer among other things brought the importance of insects as
pollinator A pollinator is an animal that moves pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female carpel, stigma of a flower. This helps to bring about fertilization of the ovules in the flower by the male gametes from the pollen grains. Insects are ...
s to the attention of the scientific community, and criticised the idea of
spontaneous generation Spontaneous generation is a superseded scientific theory that held that living creatures could arise from non-living matter and that such processes were commonplace and regular. It was hypothesized that certain forms, such as fleas, could ...
. De Geer was also a book collector. He used his library for his research, but it contained books on many other subjects in several languages. Its sumptuous and rare works, including a collection of music scores, indicate that it was also intended as a way to raise De Geer's social status as an aristocratic collector. Since 1986 it belongs to
Uppsala University Library The Uppsala University Library () at Uppsala University in Uppsala, Sweden, consists of 11 subject libraries, one of which is housed in the old main library building, Carolina Rediviva. The library holds books and periodicals, manuscripts, music ...
, but most of it is still kept ''
in situ is a Latin phrase meaning 'in place' or 'on site', derived from ' ('in') and ' ( ablative of ''situs'', ). The term typically refers to the examination or occurrence of a process within its original context, without relocation. The term is use ...
'' in Lövstabruk, in the pavilion De Geer constructed to house the library.


Family and name

Charles De Geer's father was Jean Jacques (or Jan Jacobus) De Geer, and his mother was Jacquelina Kornelia van Assendelf. His mother was Dutch, and he was a member of the prominent Swedish-Dutch De Geer family. His great-grandfather was Louis De Geer, founder of the Swedish branch of the family. Charles De Geer married in 1743. He was the first member of the De Geer family to marry a Swedish woman. She came from an aristocratic family, and through the marriage Charles De Geer came closer to the royal family. Unusually for the time, his wife organised the
inoculation Inoculation is the act of implanting a pathogen or other microbe or virus into a person or other organism. It is a method of artificially inducing immunity against various infectious diseases. The term "inoculation" is also used more generally ...
of all their children against
smallpox Smallpox was an infectious disease caused by Variola virus (often called Smallpox virus), which belongs to the genus '' Orthopoxvirus''. The last naturally occurring case was diagnosed in October 1977, and the World Health Organization (W ...
, for which she was later commemorated with a medal. The couple had eight children. Among these his son, also named , became a politician, and his daughter Hedvig Ulrika De Geer was like her father also a bibliophile and an intellectual. The family name is spelled with a capitalized ''De'' as the particle is not strictly a
nobiliary particle A nobiliary particle is a type of onomastic particle used in a surname or family name in many Western cultures to signal the nobility of a family. The particle used varies depending on the country, language and period of time. In some languages, it ...
, and Charles De Geer himself also treated ''De'' as an integral part of the family name.


Biography


Early childhood in the Dutch Republic

Charles De Geer was born on 30 January 1720 in
Finspång Finspång () is a locality and the seat of Finspång Municipality, Östergötland County, Sweden with 12,440 inhabitants in 2010. Overview Finspång is a traditional industrial town. The first industries were established in 1580 when a Royal fac ...
in Sweden, but moved to the
Dutch Republic The United Provinces of the Netherlands, commonly referred to in historiography as the Dutch Republic, was a confederation that existed from 1579 until the Batavian Revolution in 1795. It was a predecessor state of the present-day Netherlands ...
when he was three years old. The family owned the estate of outside
Utrecht Utrecht ( ; ; ) is the List of cities in the Netherlands by province, fourth-largest city of the Netherlands, as well as the capital and the most populous city of the Provinces of the Netherlands, province of Utrecht (province), Utrecht. The ...
. His interest in natural sciences began when he was still living in the Dutch Republic. An anecdote claims that his fascination was born when he was given
silkworms ''Bombyx mori'', commonly known as the domestic silk moth, is a moth species belonging to the family Bombycidae. It is the closest relative of '' Bombyx mandarina'', the wild silk moth. Silkworms are the larvae of silk moths. The silkworm is of ...
and could watch their
metamorphosis Metamorphosis is a biological process by which an animal physically develops including birth transformation or hatching, involving a conspicuous and relatively abrupt change in the animal's body structure through cell growth and different ...
. At the age of sixteen, he organised the garden at the family estate according to the principles of
Joseph Pitton de Tournefort Joseph Pitton de Tournefort (5 June 165628 December 1708) was a French botanist, notable as the first to make a clear definition of the concept of genus for plants. Botanist Charles Plumier was his pupil and accompanied him on his voyages. Li ...
, kept pigeons and collected insects and butterflies. Coming from a wealthy family, he was privately tutored by Dutch physicist
Pieter van Musschenbroek Pieter van Musschenbroek (14 March 1692 – 19 September 1761) was a Dutch scientist. He was a professor in Duisburg, Utrecht, and Leiden, where he held positions in mathematics, philosophy, medicine, and astronomy. He is credited with the inve ...
, law professor , and Swedish astronomer
Olof Hiorter Olof Petrus (or Peter) Hiorter (or Hjorter) (1696–1750) was a Swedish astronomer. After studying in the Netherlands, he was appointed lecturer at the University of Uppsala in 1732 to fill the vacant position of Anders Celsius then on his grand t ...
; he kept in contact with Musschenbroek through letters throughout his life. Pieter van Musschenbroek's brother Jan also constructed a
microscope A microscope () is a laboratory equipment, laboratory instrument used to examine objects that are too small to be seen by the naked eye. Microscopy is the science of investigating small objects and structures using a microscope. Microscopic ...
and other scientific instruments for the young Charles De Geer. He entered
Utrecht University Utrecht University (UU; , formerly ''Rijksuniversiteit Utrecht'') is a public university, public research university in Utrecht, Netherlands. Established , it is one of the oldest universities in the Netherlands. In 2023, it had an enrollment of ...
in 1738. He was brought up speaking Dutch. His journal detailing the trip when he moved to settle in Sweden from Utrecht in 1738 is written in Dutch and so is the first library catalogue he compiled of his collections in Lövstabruk in Sweden, from 1738. The second catalogue, from 1750, is written in Swedish, with some remarks in French. After his return to Sweden he appears to have made conscious efforts to learn Swedish and integrate into Swedish society by spending some years in
Uppsala Uppsala ( ; ; archaically spelled ''Upsala'') is the capital of Uppsala County and the List of urban areas in Sweden by population, fourth-largest city in Sweden, after Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Malmö. It had 177,074 inhabitants in 2019. Loc ...
(though without formally attending
Uppsala University Uppsala University (UU) () is a public university, public research university in Uppsala, Sweden. Founded in 1477, it is the List of universities in Sweden, oldest university in Sweden and the Nordic countries still in operation. Initially fou ...
), and soon became fluent in Swedish. In a letter dated less than one year after his arrival in Sweden he addressed the
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences () is one of the Swedish Royal Academies, royal academies of Sweden. Founded on 2 June 1739, it is an independent, non-governmental scientific organization that takes special responsibility for promoting nat ...
in Swedish and excused himself (according to the article about him in '' Svenskt biografiskt lexikon'' "rather unnecessarily") for any spelling mistakes.


Return to Sweden and management of Lövstabruk ironworks

At the age of ten, Charles De Geer inherited the estate of
Lövstabruk Lövstabruk is a village on a common in the parish of Österlövsta, Tierp Municipality, Uppsala County, Sweden. In 2010 it had a population of 96, compared to some 1300 at its height during the 18th century. The word ''lövsta'' is derived fro ...
in northern
Uppland Uppland is a historical province or ' on the eastern coast of Sweden, just north of Stockholm, the capital. It borders Södermanland, Västmanland and Gästrikland. It is also bounded by lake Mälaren and the Baltic Sea. The name literally ...
, in Sweden. The estate had belonged to an uncle, also named Charles, who through his
will and testament A will and testament is a legal document that expresses a person's (testator) wishes as to how their property (estate (law), estate) is to be distributed after their death and as to which person (executor) is to manage the property until its fi ...
left all his real estate as an entailed estate to Charles De Geer, bypassing two of his older brothers. Charles De Geer did not immediately gain access to the estates, however, due to his young age. Instead, his father assumed the guardianship, while delegating much of the every-day business to his eldest son (and Charles' older brother) Louis, who lived in Finspång in Sweden. Charles' father worked to secure investments in the Netherlands, where loans were cheaper to get than in Sweden, for the estate. Lövstabruk (also spelled ''Leufstabruk'', ''Löfstabruk'') developed as an
ironworks An ironworks or iron works is an industrial plant where iron is smelted and where heavy iron and steel products are made. The term is both singular and plural, i.e. the singular of ''ironworks'' is ''ironworks''. Ironworks succeeded bloome ...
, rather than an agricultural estate; it forms part of a group of iron works in northern Uppland managed largely by Walloon immigrants to Sweden. Tracing its origins to the
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...
, it was developed by Charles De Geer's great-grandfather Louis De Geer into an early industrial complex. In the 18th century, it was the most important ironworks in Sweden, and at the time of Charles De Geer employed over 3,000 people. Upon the death of Charles' uncle, the estate was however in an economically precarious state. Lövstabruk had been burnt down by Russian troops in July 1719, during the
Russian Pillage of 1719–1721 The Russian Pillage (), is the name for the action of the Imperial Russian Fleet toward the Swedish civilian population along the Swedish east coast, as well as expeditions and the raids of single unit in the inland, during the finishing years o ...
at the end of the
Great Northern War In the Great Northern War (1700–1721) a coalition led by the Tsardom of Russia successfully contested the supremacy of the Swedish Empire in Northern Europe, Northern, Central Europe, Central and Eastern Europe. The initial leaders of the ant ...
, and the losses incurred then had not fully been recovered. The situation was such that the owner at the time considered abandoning it and moving back to the Dutch Republic. In the years that followed, Charles' father and elder brother managed to stabilise the economic situation of the estate. In 1738, his father died and Charles moved from Utrecht to Lövstabruk, as planned, to be introduced to the running of the estate. Formally he was not to assume ownership of the estate until the age of 25, but already in 1741 he took over the management of the estate. He ran it until his death and though supported by skilful staff, he took a strong personal interest in it. He was a highly successful businessman, and eventually became one of the richest people in Sweden. He expanded the estate greatly, partly by acquiring woodland which supplied fuel for the ironworks, and partly by acquiring other ironworks to get rid of competition. He also sold some estates his predecessors had bought, including
Österbybruk Österbybruk is a locality situated in Östhammar Municipality, Uppsala County, Sweden with 2,272 inhabitants in 2010. Ironworks The Österby works was one of a number mostly in Roslagen, where there were Walloon forges, producing high quality ...
which he sold to the brothers
Claes Claes is a masculine given name, a version of Nicholas, as well as a patronymic surname. It is also spelled Klas, Clas and Klaes. Given name Claes is a common first name in Sweden. It was also a common name in the Low Countries until the 18th cent ...
and Abraham Grill of the Grill family, making considerable profits. In an instruction he left behind for his successor, De Geer stressed the importance of not putting too much trust in administrators and inspectors, not to fret over details too much, to maintain good relations with the clergy and the crown, and to treat the workers well.


Refurbishment of Lövstabruk and book collecting

After Löfstabruk had been burnt down by Russian troops in 1719, a new main building was built in the 1720s. When Charles De Geer acquired the estate, he enlarged and refurbished it. As an architect he employed court architect
Jean Eric Rehn Jean Eric Rehn (18 May 1717, Stockholm - 19 May 1793, Stockholm) was a Swedish architect, engraver and designer. Biography His father, Eric, was a government ombudsman for the Sámi people. While still a boy, he became part of the , a forerunn ...
. Two wings were added to the main building and an
aviary An aviary is a large enclosure for confining birds, although bats may also be considered for display. Unlike birdcages, aviaries allow birds a larger living space where Bird flight, they can fly; hence, aviaries are also sometimes known as flig ...
was built in the park in 1759. In 1765, the interior of the main building was also refurbished to designs by Rehn. Furthermore, two pavilions were built next to the main building, one to house the main library and the other the cabinet of natural history, working library and study of De Geer, respectively. Charles De Geer was an ardent book collector, and despite his success as an industrialist he is perhaps more remembered for his library, apart from his work as a scientist. He began collecting books already as a boy in Rijnhuizen. A letter from his father dated 1736, when Charles was 16, depicts "a young man with a childlike fascination for nature and the reference library of an established scientist." Twelve years old he already owned works by
Maria Sibylla Merian Maria Sibylla Merian (2 April 164713 January 1717) was a German Entomology, entomologist, naturalist and scientific illustrator. She was one of the earliest European naturalists to document observations about insects directly. Merian was a desce ...
and
Jan Goedart Johannes Goedaert (also spelled Goetaart, Goedhart, Goedaard or Jean Goedart in French) (19 March 1617 (baptized) – 15 January 1668 (buried)) was a Dutch Natural history, natur ...
. Upon moving to Sweden in 1738, his books and scientific instruments occupied the space of twelve wooden chests. It has been remarked that "this is not the library of a typical adolescent, but a well-considered collection of handbooks, classical literature and scientific works." Once established in Sweden, he continued acquiring books. De Geer bought several books on natural sciences from
Olof Rudbeck the Younger Olof Rudbeck the Younger or Olaus Rudbeckius d.y. (15 March 1660 – 23 March 1740) was a Swedish explorer, scientist, botanist, ornithologist and rector of Uppsala University. Biography Olof Rudbeck was born in Uppsala, Sweden, the son of O ...
, whom he had come to know in Uppsala, and several more when Rudbeck's library was sold at an auction after his death in 1741. Among these books were some "marvellous" works on botany and zoology, which contributed to making the library famous, also abroad. He also bought books from booksellers in Sweden, though from 1746 most purchases were made by the Luchtmans bookdealers in
Leiden Leiden ( ; ; in English language, English and Archaism, archaic Dutch language, Dutch also Leyden) is a List of cities in the Netherlands by province, city and List of municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the Provinces of the Nethe ...
, in the Dutch Republic. De Geer's extensive connections with the Dutch book market have been described as a "splendid example of how the globalization of the time impacted small villages far from the large cities." Around a quarter of the books in the library are on
natural history Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms, including animals, fungi, and plants, in their natural environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. A person who studies natural history is cal ...
, notably
entomology Entomology (from Ancient Greek ἔντομον (''éntomon''), meaning "insect", and -logy from λόγος (''lógos''), meaning "study") is the branch of zoology that focuses on insects. Those who study entomology are known as entomologists. In ...
, and contains several of the standard works on biology and zoology of the day. The library clearly served as a research library, and De Geer's entomological works contain several references to books found in his library; however De Geer also purchased works on religion, philosophy and ethics, law, history, linguistics, travelogues, biographies and fiction. Notably, the library also contained a collection of musical scores (today kept in Uppsala) considered to be one of the finest collections of music from the 18th century in Sweden. It contains around 90 albums of printed works and 37 hand-written manuscripts, with music both by famous composers such as
George Frideric Handel George Frideric (or Frederick) Handel ( ; baptised , ; 23 February 1685 – 14 April 1759) was a German-British Baroque composer well-known for his operas, oratorios, anthems, concerti grossi, and organ concerti. Born in Halle, Germany, H ...
and
Antonio Vivaldi Antonio Lucio Vivaldi (4 March 1678 â€“ 28 July 1741) was an Italian composer, virtuoso violinist, impresario of Baroque music and Roman Catholic priest. Regarded as one of the greatest Baroque composers, Vivaldi's influence during his lif ...
, as well as music by contemporary Swedish composers like
Francesco Uttini Francesco Antonio Baldassare Uttini (1723, Bologna – 25 October 1795) was an Italian composer and conductor who was active mostly in Sweden. He is best remembered today as a composer of operas in both the Italian and Swedish languages and f ...
and
Johan Helmich Roman Johan Helmich Roman (26 October 1694 – 20 November 1758) was a Swedish Baroque composer. He has been called "the father of Swedish music" or "the Swedish Handel." He was the leader of the Swedish Royal Orchestra during the first decades of Swed ...
. Several are works not known from any other library. Indeed, the purpose of Charles De Geer's library appears to at least to some degree have been intended to raise the status of De Geer as an aristocratic collector. Together with the items in his cabinet of natural history, as a private collection it was probably only surpassed by the collection of Count
Carl Gustaf Tessin Count Carl Gustaf Tessin (5 September 1695 – 7 January 1770) was a Swedish Count and politician and son of architect Nicodemus Tessin the Younger and Hedvig Eleonora Stenbock. He was one of the most brilliant personages of his day, and the mo ...
at that time, in Sweden. The library of Charles De Geer contains around 8,500 volumes (including some additions by later relatives) and most of them are still in their original setting. Most are in French, but the library also contains books in Swedish, Latin, German, Dutch and a few other languages. Out of the 2,159 books printed in the Dutch Republic 296 are editions, and in some cases books, not known from any other collection. In 1986, when the entailment of Lövstabruk was ended, the library was acquired by
Uppsala University Library The Uppsala University Library () at Uppsala University in Uppsala, Sweden, consists of 11 subject libraries, one of which is housed in the old main library building, Carolina Rediviva. The library holds books and periodicals, manuscripts, music ...
, to avoid the collection to be sold and dispersed abroad. It thus remains "a kind of time capsule from the 18th century" where
ephemera Ephemera are items which were not originally designed to be retained or preserved, but have been collected or retained. The word is etymologically derived from the Greek ephēmeros 'lasting only a day'. The word is both plural and singular. On ...
like playing cards and hand-written notes have been found between the leaves of the books. The library also contains a
celestial Celestial may refer to: Science * Objects or events seen in the sky and the following astronomical terms: ** Astronomical object, a naturally occurring physical entity, association, or structure that exists in the observable universe ** Celest ...
and a
terrestrial globe A globe is a spherical model of Earth, of some other celestial body, or of the celestial sphere. Globes serve purposes similar to maps, but, unlike maps, they do not distort the surface that they portray except to scale it down. A model globe ...
, made by globe maker Anders Ã…kerman.


Scientific career

The interest in natural history and in particular entomology De Geer had displayed from an early age developed into full scientific activity after his return to Sweden. He probably attended lectures in Uppsala. Moreover, he was elected a member of the
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences () is one of the Swedish Royal Academies, royal academies of Sweden. Founded on 2 June 1739, it is an independent, non-governmental scientific organization that takes special responsibility for promoting nat ...
at the age of 19 (in 1739) – though the reasons of the Academy for electing De Geer a member was apparently that they hoped he would make a generous donation of money. De Geer never did, but he became an active member of the Academy, contributing with a scientific paper already in 1740. De Geer contributed several papers to the ''Transactions'' of the Academy. One of the first, from 1741, was on a species of
spittlebug The superfamily Cercopoidea, some members of which are called froghoppers and still others known as spittlebugs, are a group of hemipteran insects in the suborder Auchenorrhyncha. Adults are capable of jumping many times their height and length ...
, '' Aphrophora salicis'', detailing the life cycle of the insect by thorough empirical observation. Earlier scholars, such as
Isidore of Seville Isidore of Seville (; 4 April 636) was a Spania, Hispano-Roman scholar, theologian and Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville, archbishop of Seville. He is widely regarded, in the words of the 19th-century historian Charles Forbes René de Montal ...
in the
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...
, had held that spittlebugs were produced by the spit of
cuckoo Cuckoos are birds in the Cuculidae ( ) family, the sole taxon in the order Cuculiformes ( ). The cuckoo family includes the common or European cuckoo, roadrunners, koels, malkohas, couas, coucals, and anis. The coucals and anis are somet ...
s, something De Geer showed was manifestly false. In a speech given to the Academy in 1754, he developed a deeper critique of the idea of
spontaneous generation Spontaneous generation is a superseded scientific theory that held that living creatures could arise from non-living matter and that such processes were commonplace and regular. It was hypothesized that certain forms, such as fleas, could ...
, supported by a "rich flood of observations and arguments", as entomologist
Felix Bryk Felix Bryk (21 January 1882, in Vienna – 13 January 1957, in Stockholm) was a Swedish anthropologist, entomologist and writer. In entomological circles, Bryk is best known as a lepidopterist; in anthropological history, for his studies in East ...
writes in his biography of De Geer. De Geer also brought the importance of insects as
pollinator A pollinator is an animal that moves pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female carpel, stigma of a flower. This helps to bring about fertilization of the ovules in the flower by the male gametes from the pollen grains. Insects are ...
s to the attention of the scientific community through his writings, which Bryk describes as one of his "most notable accomplishments." He also discovered, independently of
Charles Bonnet Charles Bonnet (; 13 March 1720 – 20 May 1793) was a Republic of Geneva, Genevan natural history, naturalist and philosophical methodology, philosophical writer. He is responsible for coining the term ''phyllotaxis'' to describe the arrangement ...
, the
parthenogenesis Parthenogenesis (; from the Greek + ) is a natural form of asexual reproduction in which the embryo develops directly from an egg without need for fertilization. In animals, parthenogenesis means the development of an embryo from an unfertiliz ...
of
aphid Aphids are small sap-sucking insects in the Taxonomic rank, family Aphididae. Common names include greenfly and blackfly, although individuals within a species can vary widely in color. The group includes the fluffy white Eriosomatinae, woolly ...
s. In 1748, De Geer was elected a corresponding member of the
French Academy of Sciences The French Academy of Sciences (, ) is a learned society, founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, to encourage and protect the spirit of French Scientific method, scientific research. It was at the forefron ...
. His main contribution as a scientist was however in species research, in the footsteps of
René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur (; ; 28 February 1683 – 17 October 1757) was a French entomologist and writer who contributed to many different fields, especially the study of insects. He introduced the Réaumur temperature scale. Lif ...
. De Geer paid particular attention to insects which were considered pests or otherwise had some concrete impact related to human activity. His many meticulous observations on the metamorphoses, diet and reproduction of over 1,400 insect species were eventually gathered in his main work, ''Mémoires pour servir de l'histoire des insectes'', published in French in eight volumes between 1752 and 1778. Many species were there described for the first time, though since De Geer was slow to adopt the binary nomenclature of Linnaeus, some were not credited to him. Among the more principal breakthroughs in the ''Mémoires'' was the division of ''
hemiptera Hemiptera (; ) is an order of insects, commonly called true bugs, comprising more than 80,000 species within groups such as the cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, assassin bugs, bed bugs, and shield bugs. They range in size from ...
'' into several sub-groups, which
Johan Christian Fabricius Johann Christian Fabricius (7 January 1745 – 3 March 1808) was a Danish zoologist, specialising in "Insecta", which at that time included all arthropods: insects, arachnids, crustaceans and others. He was a student of Carl Linnaeus, and is co ...
would later develop further. De Geer edited the last volume on his deathbed. He apparently viewed the work as a continuation of the work by Réamur with the same title, considering that he wrote it in French, but it was criticised for simply being an imitation of Réamur's work. However, De Geer's work also corrected Réaumur and its illustrations were considerably more accurate. It remains one of the largest single work on zoology ever produced by a Swede, and is counted among the classics of entomological literature. De Geer, who was an accomplished draughtsman, made all the illustrations (printed using 238 copper plates) himself. A German translation was published in 1776–1782. De Geer gave away twelve copies of his work to
Carl Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné,#Blunt, Blunt (2004), p. 171. was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming o ...
, asking him to provide any of his students who were interested in entomology with a copy. One such copy was given by Linnaeus to
Peter Forsskål Peter Forsskål, sometimes spelled Pehr Forsskål, Peter Forskaol, Petrus Forskål or Pehr Forsskåhl (11 January 1732 – 11 July 1763) was a Sweden, Swedish exploration, explorer, oriental studies, orientalist, natural history, naturalist, and ...
. De Geer sold some via the book traders Luchtmans in Leiden, who also supplied him with books for his library; preserved accounts show that copies of ''Mémoires'' were sold by Luchtmans to established scientists like
Job Baster Job Baster, sometimes Hiob Baster, (2 April 1711, in Zierikzee – 6 March 1775) was a Dutch physician and naturalist who devoted himself almost entirely to the study of medicine and natural history. He studied and took his degree of doctor of ...
and Eduard Sandifort. De Geer was, next to Linnaeus, probably the most important biologist in Sweden during the 18th century. He kept in contact with several other naturalists of his day – apart from with Réamur himself, with Bonnet, Pierre Lyonnet,
Abraham Trembley Abraham Trembley (3 September 1710 – 12 May 1784 Geneva) was a Genevan naturalist. He is best known for being the first to study freshwater polyps or '' hydra'' and for being among the first to develop experimental zoology. His mastery of exp ...
and
Carl Alexander Clerck Carl Alexander Clerck (1709 – 22 July 1765) was a Sweden, Swedish entomologist and arachnology, arachnologist. Clerck came from a family in the petty Swedish nobility, nobility and entered the University of Uppsala in 1726. Little is known of hi ...
. Linnaeus was a personal friend. Linnaeus apparently made good use of the natural history cabinet of De Geer, which in addition to the insects collected by De Geer himself contained specimens he had acquired from other collectors, including Johann Jacob Ferber. Among these were the collections of insects gathered by
Daniel Rolander Daniel Rolander (1722/3 – 10 August 1793) was a Swedish people, Swedish biologist and an Apostles of Linnaeus, apostle of Carl Linnaeus. Rolander was born to a simple family in Hälleberga, Småland, Sweden and studied at Uppsala University whe ...
in South America. Linnaeus made over 50 references to De Geer's collections in the ground-breaking 10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'', and De Geer's collection is the only private collection, apart from the aforementioned collection of Tessin, which is separately listed as a source by Linnaeus. De Geer however paid little attention to the questions of systematisation which preoccupied Linnaeus.


Civic career, later life and death

In public life, De Geer was present at every session of the
Riksdag of the Estates Riksdag of the Estates (; informally ) was the name used for the Estates of Sweden when they were assembled. Until its dissolution in 1866, the institution was the highest authority in Sweden next to the King. It was a Diet made up of the Fou ...
(i.e., the parliament) between 1751 and 1772. Even so, his interest in politics appears to have been limited and he played no active role in the sessions. He held offices at the
Royal Court A royal court, often called simply a court when the royal context is clear, is an extended royal household in a monarchy, including all those who regularly attend on a monarch, or another central figure. Hence, the word ''court'' may also be app ...
: in 1740 he was appointed Chamberlain, and in 1760 Marshal of the Court. Charles De Geer was elevated to the rank of ''
friherre (; male, abbreviated as ), (; his wife, abbreviated as , ) and (, his unmarried daughters and maiden aunts) are designations used as titles of nobility in the German-speaking areas of the Holy Roman Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and in i ...
'' (baron) in 1773. He received two royal orders: the rank of Knight of the
Order of the Polar Star The Royal Order of the Polar Star (Swedish language, Swedish: ''Kungliga Nordstjärneorden''), sometimes translated as the Royal Order of the North Star, is a Swedish order of chivalry created by Frederick I of Sweden, King Frederick I on 23 F ...
in 1761 and Commander Grand Cross of the
Order of Vasa The Royal Order of Vasa () is a Swedish order of chivalry founded on 29 May 1772 by Gustav III, King Gustav III. It is awarded to Swedish citizens for service to state and society especially in the fields of agriculture, mining and commerce. His ...
in 1772. Soon after turning 50, he was beset by
gout Gout ( ) is a form of inflammatory arthritis characterized by recurrent attacks of pain in a red, tender, hot, and Joint effusion, swollen joint, caused by the deposition of needle-like crystals of uric acid known as monosodium urate crysta ...
, which led to his death on 7 March 1778. He died in Stockholm. He is buried together with his wife in a chapel in
Uppsala Cathedral Uppsala Cathedral () is a cathedral located between the University Hall (Uppsala University), University Hall of Uppsala University and the Fyris river in the centre of Uppsala, Sweden. A church of the Church of Sweden, the national church, in t ...
. After his death, his collections of insects and birds were donated by De Geer's widow to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. They were later incorporated into the collections of the
Swedish Museum of Natural History The Swedish Museum of Natural History (), in Stockholm, is one of two major museums of natural history in Sweden, the other one being located in Gothenburg. The museum was founded in 1819 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, but goes bac ...
.


References


Citations


Sources

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External links


Works by De Geer
in
LIBRIS LIBRIS (Library Information System) is a Swedish national union catalogue maintained by the National Library of Sweden in Stockholm Stockholm (; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in Sweden by population, most populo ...
, the joint catalogue of the Swedish academic and research libraries.
Posts related to Charles De Geer
in
Alvin ''Alvin'' (DSV-2) is a crewed deep-ocean research submersible owned by the United States Navy and operated by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution (WHOI) of Woods Hole, Massachusetts. The original vehicle was built by General Mills' Electro ...
, the Swedish national platform for the long-term preservation and accessibility of digitised collections and digital cultural heritage material from Swedish cultural heritage institutions.
List of binomial names established by De Geer
provided by
AnimalBase AnimalBase is a project brought to life in 2004 and is maintained by the University of Göttingen, Germany. The goal of the AnimalBase project is to digitize early zoological literature, provide copyright-free open access to zoological works, and p ...

The last catalogue drawn up from the library at Lövstabruk
written in 1907 and available in a digitised format via Alvin.
Information about the library at Lövstabruk
from
Uppsala University Library The Uppsala University Library () at Uppsala University in Uppsala, Sweden, consists of 11 subject libraries, one of which is housed in the old main library building, Carolina Rediviva. The library holds books and periodicals, manuscripts, music ...
{{DEFAULTSORT:De Geer, Charles 1720 births 1778 deaths 18th-century Swedish businesspeople 18th-century Swedish zoologists Swedish entomologists Hymenopterists Swedish arachnologists Members of the French Academy of Sciences Expatriates in the Dutch Republic Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences People from Finspång Municipality Geer, Charles de Utrecht University alumni
Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...
Book and manuscript collectors Knights of the Order of the Polar Star Commanders Grand Cross of the Order of Vasa Swedish scientific illustrators 18th-century Swedish illustrators Swedish people of Belgian descent Swedish civil servants