The Chao Phraya ( or ; th,
แม่น้ำเจ้าพระยา, , or ) is the major river in Thailand,
with its low
alluvial plain
An alluvial plain is a largely flat landform created by the deposition of sediment over a long period of time by one or more rivers coming from highland regions, from which alluvial soil forms. A floodplain is part of the process, being the sma ...
forming the centre of the country. It flows through
Bangkok
Bangkok, officially known in Thai language, Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon and colloquially as Krung Thep, is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. The city occupies in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estima ...
and then into the
Gulf of Thailand
The Gulf of Thailand, also known as the Gulf of Siam, is a shallow inlet in the southwestern South China Sea, bounded between the southwestern shores of the Indochinese Peninsula and the northern half of the Malay Peninsula. It is around in l ...
.
Etymology
On many old European maps, the river is named the ''Mae Nam'' (Thai:
แม่น้ำ), the Thai word for "river" (literally, "motherly water").
James McCarthy,
F.R.G.S.
The Royal Geographical Society (with the Institute of British Geographers), often shortened to RGS, is a learned society and professional body for geography based in the United Kingdom. Founded in 1830 for the advancement of geographical scien ...
, who served as Director-General of the Siamese Government Surveys prior to establishment of the
Royal Survey Department, wrote in his account, "''Mae Nam'' is a generic term, ''mae'' signifying "mother" and ''Nam'' "water," and the epithet Chao P'ia signifies that it is the chief river in the kingdom of Siam."
H. Warington Smyth, who served as Director of the Department of Mines in Siam from 1891 to 1896, refers to it in his book first published in 1898 as "the Mae Nam Chao Phraya".
In the English-language media in Thailand, the name Chao Phraya River is often translated as ''river of kings''.
History
On the basins of Chao Phraya River rose the earliest civilizations in the south east Asia, most notably the ancient Mon kingdom and the civilization of
Dvaravati
The Dvaravati ( th, ทวารวดี ; ) was an ancient Mon kingdom from the 7th century to the 11th century that was located in the region now known as central Thailand. It was described by the Chinese pilgrim in the middle of the 7th ce ...
from the 7th century to the 11th century, the river played a crucial role in the
Lavo kingdom that existed on its left bank in the Upper Chao Phraya valley, Chao Phraya maintained its role in the kingdoms that succeeded the Lavo kingdom, forming the bases of the Ayodhaya kingdom, that was later incorporated into the
Ayutthaya Kingdom
The Ayutthaya Kingdom (; th, อยุธยา, , IAST: or , ) was a Siamese kingdom that existed in Southeast Asia from 1351 to 1767, centered around the city of Ayutthaya, in Siam, or present-day Thailand. The Ayutthaya Kingdom is conside ...
in the 14th century, which itself was precursor of modern Thailand (known formerly as Siam), the river became very significant after the establishment of Rattanakosin (Bangkok) in 1782 on its east bank, the location of Bangkok on the east bank of Chao Phraya River ensured protection to Siamese kingdom from the Burmese invasions coming from the West.
Geography
The Chao Phraya begins at the
confluence
In geography, a confluence (also: ''conflux'') occurs where two or more flowing bodies of water join to form a single channel. A confluence can occur in several configurations: at the point where a tributary joins a larger river (main stem); o ...
of the
Ping
Ping may refer to:
Arts and entertainment Fictional characters
* Ping, a domesticated Chinese duck in the illustrated book '' The Story about Ping'', first published in 1933
* Ping, a minor character in ''Seinfeld'', an NBC sitcom
* Ping, a c ...
and
Nan
Nan or NAN may refer to:
Places China
* Nan County, Yiyang, Hunan, China
* Nan Commandery, historical commandery in Hubei, China
Thailand
* Nan Province
** Nan, Thailand, the administrative capital of Nan Province
* Nan River
People Given name ...
rivers at
Nakhon Sawan
Nakhon Sawan ( th, นครสวรรค์, ) is a city (''thesaban nakhon'') in Thailand, the name literally means "Heavenly City". The city is the capital of Nakhon Sawan Province, and covers the complete subdistrict (''tambon'') Pak Nam P ...
(also called Pak Nam Pho) in
Nakhon Sawan province. After this, it flows south for from the
central plains to
Bangkok
Bangkok, officially known in Thai language, Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon and colloquially as Krung Thep, is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. The city occupies in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estima ...
and the
Gulf of Thailand
The Gulf of Thailand, also known as the Gulf of Siam, is a shallow inlet in the southwestern South China Sea, bounded between the southwestern shores of the Indochinese Peninsula and the northern half of the Malay Peninsula. It is around in l ...
. In
Chai Nat
Chai Nat ( th, ชัยนาท, ) is a town (''thesaban mueang'') in central Thailand, capital of Chai Nat province. It covers the whole ''tambon'' tambon Nai Mueang and parts of Ban Kluai, Tha Chai and Khao Tha Phra, all in Mueang Chai Nat ...
, the river then splits into the main course and the
Tha Chin River
The Tha Chin river ( th, แม่น้ำท่าจีน, , ) is a distributary of the Chao Phraya river, Thailand. It splits near the province of Chai Nat and then flows west from the Chao Phraya through the central plains, until it empt ...
, which then flows parallel to the main river and exits in the Gulf of Thailand about west of Bangkok in
Samut Sakhon
Samut Sakhon ( th, สมุทรสาคร, Pronunciation is a City in Thailand, capital of Samut Sakhon province. It is a stop on the Maeklong Railway. Samut Sakhon is 48 km from Bangkok.
It is part of the Bangkok Metropolitan Region ...
.
In the low
alluvial plain
An alluvial plain is a largely flat landform created by the deposition of sediment over a long period of time by one or more rivers coming from highland regions, from which alluvial soil forms. A floodplain is part of the process, being the sma ...
which begins below the
Chao Phraya Dam
The Chao Phraya Dam ( th, เขื่อนเจ้าพระยา, , ) is a barrage dam in Sapphaya district, Chai Nat province, Thailand. It regulates the flow of the Chao Phraya River as it passes into lower central Thailand, distributing ...
, there are many small canals (''
khlong
A ''khlong'' ( th, คลอง, ), alternatively spelt as ''klong'' () commonly refers to a canal in Thailand. These canals are spawned by the rivers Chao Phraya, Tha Chin, and Mae Klong, along with their tributaries particularly in the low-ly ...
'') which split off from the main river. The ''khlongs'' are used for the irrigation of the region's rice paddies.
The rough coordinates of the river are 13 N, 100 E. This area has a wet monsoon climate, with over of rainfall per year. Temperatures range from in Bangkok.
River engineering
The lower Chao Phraya underwent several man-made modifications during the
Ayutthaya Ayutthaya, Ayudhya, or Ayuthia may refer to:
* Ayutthaya Kingdom, a Thai kingdom that existed from 1350 to 1767
** Ayutthaya Historical Park, the ruins of the old capital city of the Ayutthaya Kingdom
* Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya province (locally ...
period. Several shortcut canals were constructed to bypass large loops in the river, shortening the trip from the capital city to the sea. The course of the river has since changed to follow many of these canals.
* In 1538, Thailand's first
river engineering
River engineering is a discipline of civil engineering which studies human intervention in the course, characteristics, or flow of a river with the intention of producing some defined benefit. People have intervened in the natural course and b ...
of a long canal was dug at the order of
King Chairachathirat. It was called "Khlong Lat", and today forms a part of
Khlong Bangkok Noi
250px, Khlong Bangkok Noi near Wat Sri Sudaram
Khlong Bangkok Noi ( th, คลองบางกอกน้อย, ; lit 'Small Bangkok Canal') is a '' khlong'' (คลอง; canal) in Bangkok; its name is the origin of the name Bangkok Noi Dis ...
. It shortened the route by 13–14 km for ships from the Gulf of Siam to the then-capital city,
Ayutthaya Ayutthaya, Ayudhya, or Ayuthia may refer to:
* Ayutthaya Kingdom, a Thai kingdom that existed from 1350 to 1767
** Ayutthaya Historical Park, the ruins of the old capital city of the Ayutthaya Kingdom
* Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya province (locally ...
.
[Steve Van Beek: ''The Chao Phya'', p.39]
* In 1542, a two kilometer-long canal, "Khlong Lat Bangkok", was completed. The Chao Phraya then diverted along the new canal, its old course becoming part of Khlong Bangkok Noi and
Khlong Bangkok Yai
Khlong Bangkok Yai ( th, คลองบางกอกใหญ่, ; lit: 'Big Bangkok Canal') is a historic '' khlong'' (คลอง; canal) of Bangkok. The current length is 6 km (about 3 mi), through various canals as far as it term ...
. It is said to have shortened the river route by .
* In 1608, a seven kilometer-long "Khlong Bang Phrao" canal was completed and has shortened the Chao Phraya's original route by .
* In 1636, the "Khlong Lat Mueang Nonthaburi" was completed.
* In 1722, the two kilometre long "Khlong Lat Kret Noi" shortened the Chao Phraya by . This route formed the island of
Ko Kret
Ko Kret ( th, เกาะเกร็ด, ) is a small island in the Chao Phraya River in Nonthaburi province, Thailand. It is around long and wide with an area of over 4.2 square kilometers. It has seven main villages, the largest and most p ...
.
River settlements
Cities along the Chao Phraya include, from north to south,
Nakhon Sawan Province,
Uthai Thani Province
Uthai Thani ( th, อุทัยธานี, ), one of Thailand's seventy-six provinces (''changwat'') lies in lower northern Thailand. Neighbouring provinces are (from north clockwise) Nakhon Sawan, Chai Nat, Suphan Buri, Kanchanaburi and ...
,
Chai Nat Province
Chai Nat ( th, ชัยนาท, ) is one of the central provinces (''changwat'') of Thailand. Neighbouring provinces are (from north clockwise) Nakhon Sawan, Sing Buri, Suphan Buri, and Uthai Thani. The town of Chai Nat is 188 km north ...
,
Sing Buri Province
Sing Buri ( th, สิงห์บุรี, ) is one of the central provinces (''changwat'') of Thailand. Neighboring provinces are (from north clockwise) Nakhon Sawan, Lopburi, Ang Thong, Suphan Buri, and Chai Nat.
Toponymy
The word ''sing'' ...
,
Ang Thong Province,
Ayutthaya Province,
Pathum Thani Province,
Nonthaburi Province,
Bangkok
Bangkok, officially known in Thai language, Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon and colloquially as Krung Thep, is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. The city occupies in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estima ...
, and
Samut Prakan Province. These cities are among the most historically significant and densely populated settlements of Thailand due to their access to the waterway.
Transportation
![Lunch at Rongros, Bangkok (Jan 2021) - img 05](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ea/Lunch_at_Rongros%2C_Bangkok_%28Jan_2021%29_-_img_05.jpg)
Major bridges cross the Chao Phraya in Bangkok: the
Rama VI
Vajiravudh ( th, วชิราวุธ, , 1 January 188126 November 1925) was the sixth monarch of Siam under the Chakri dynasty as Rama VI. He ruled from 23 October 1910 until his death in 1925. King Vajiravudh is best known for his efforts ...
railroad bridge;
Phra Pin-klao near the
Grand Palace
The Grand Palace ( th, พระบรมมหาราชวัง, Royal Institute of Thailand. (2011). ''How to read and how to write.'' (20th Edition). Bangkok: Royal Institute of Thailand. .) is a complex of buildings at the heart of Ban ...
;
Rama VIII
Ananda Mahidol ( th, พระบาทสมเด็จพระปรเมนทรมหาอานันทมหิดล; ; 20 September 1925 – 9 June 1946), posthumous reigning title Phra Athamaramathibodin ( th, พระอั ...
, a single tower asymmetrical cable-stayed bridge;
Rama IX
Bhumibol Adulyadej ( th, ภูมิพลอดุลยเดช; ; ; (Sanskrit: ''bhūmi·bala atulya·teja'' - "might of the land, unparalleled brilliance"); 5 December 192713 October 2016), conferred with the title King Bhumibol the Great ...
, a semi-symmetric cable-stayed bridge; and
Mega Bridge
The Bhumibol Bridge ( th, สะพานภูมิพล), also known as the Industrial Ring Road Bridge ( th, สะพานวงแหวนอุตสาหกรรม) is part of the 13 km long Industrial Ring Road connecting sout ...
, on the Industrial Ring Road.
In Bangkok, the Chao Phraya is a major transportation artery for a network of river buses, cross-river ferries, and water taxis ("longtails"). More than 15 boat lines operate on the rivers and canals of the city, including
commuter lines.
Tributaries
The principal tributaries of the Chao Phraya River are the
Pa Sak River
The Pa Sak River ( th, แม่น้ำป่าสัก, , Pronunciation is a river in central Thailand. The river originates in the Phetchabun Mountains, Dan Sai District, Loei Province, and passes through Phetchabun Province as the backb ...
, the
Sakae Krang River
The Sakae Krang River ( th, แม่น้ำสะแกกรัง, , ) is a tributary of the Chao Phraya River. It originates in Mae Wong National Park, Nakhon Sawan Province. It is long, with most of its length in Uthai Thani Province. It ...
, the
Nan River
The Nan River ( th, แม่น้ำน่าน, , ) is a river in Thailand. It is one of the most important tributaries of the Chao Phraya River.
Geography
The Nan River originates in the Luang Prabang Range, Nan Province. The provinces ...
(along with its principal confluent the
Yom River
The Yom River ( th, แม่น้ำยม, , ) is a river in Thailand. It is the main tributary of the Nan River (which itself is a tributary of the Chao Phraya River). The Yom River has its source in the Phi Pan Nam Range in Pong District, Ph ...
), the
Ping River
The Ping River ( th, แม่น้ำปิง, , ), along with the Nan River, is one of the two main tributaries of the Chao Phraya River. It originates at Doi Thuai in the Daen Lao Range, in Chiang Dao district, Chiang Mai province. After pas ...
(with its principal confluent, the
Wang River
The Wang River ( th, แม่น้ำวัง, , ) is a river in northern Thailand.
Geography
The Wang River is long. Its waters flow from north to south. The Wang River has its source in the Phi Pan Nam Range in Wiang Pa Pao District, Chi ...
), and the
Tha Chin River
The Tha Chin river ( th, แม่น้ำท่าจีน, , ) is a distributary of the Chao Phraya river, Thailand. It splits near the province of Chai Nat and then flows west from the Chao Phraya through the central plains, until it empt ...
.
Each of these tributaries (and the Chao Phraya itself) is augmented by minor tributaries referred to as ''khwae''. All of the tributaries, including the lesser khwae, form an extensive tree-like pattern, with branches flowing through nearly every province in central and northern
Thailand
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () and officially the Kingdom of Thailand, is a country in Southeast Asia, located at the centre of the Indochinese Peninsula, spanning , with a population of almost 70 million. The country is bo ...
.
None of the tributaries of the Chao Phraya extend beyond the nation's borders.
[Google Earth] The Nan and the Yom River flow nearly parallel from
Phitsanulok
Phitsanulok ( th, พิษณุโลก, ) is an important, historic city in lower northern Thailand and is the capital of Phitsanulok Province. Phitsanulok is home to Naresuan University and Pibulsongkram Rajabhat University, as well as ...
to Chumsaeng in the north of Nakhon Sawan Province. The
Wang River
The Wang River ( th, แม่น้ำวัง, , ) is a river in northern Thailand.
Geography
The Wang River is long. Its waters flow from north to south. The Wang River has its source in the Phi Pan Nam Range in Wiang Pa Pao District, Chi ...
enters the Ping River near Sam Ngao district in
Tak Province
Tak ( th, ตาก, , Burmese: တာ့ခ် pronounced ak is one of Thailand's seventy-seven provinces (''changwat'') and lies in lower northern Thailand. Neighbouring provinces are (from north clockwise) Mae Hong Son, Chiang Mai, Lamphun, ...
.
Length
![Boatman on the Chao Phraya river in Nonthaburi province Thailand](https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Boatman_on_the_Chao_Phraya_river_in_Nonthaburi_province_Thailand.jpg)
When measured from the most commonly accepted source, which is the confluence of the Ping and Nan River in Nakhon Sawan, the river measures . However, when measured from the longest source, which is the origin point of the Nan River in the
Luang Prabang Range
The Luang Prabang Range ( th, ทิวเขาหลวงพระบาง, ), named after Luang Prabang, is a mountain range straddling northwestern Laos and Northern Thailand.
Most of the range is located in Sainyabuli Province (Laos), as ...
, the river measures .
Chao Phraya watershed
Ruins of Wat Chaiwatthanaram, built in
Ayutthaya Kingdom
The Ayutthaya Kingdom (; th, อยุธยา, , IAST: or , ) was a Siamese kingdom that existed in Southeast Asia from 1351 to 1767, centered around the city of Ayutthaya, in Siam, or present-day Thailand. The Ayutthaya Kingdom is conside ...
, by the Chao Phraya
The expanse of the Chao Phraya River and its tributaries, i.e., the Chao Phraya river system, together with the land upon which falling rain drains into these bodies of water, form the Chao Phraya
watershed
Watershed is a hydrological term, which has been adopted in other fields in a more or less figurative sense. It may refer to:
Hydrology
* Drainage divide, the line that separates neighbouring drainage basins
* Drainage basin, called a "watershe ...
.
[River and Watershed Facts on the Chao Phraya](_blank)
The Chao Phraya watershed is the largest watershed in Thailand, covering approximately 35 percent of the nation's land, and draining an area of .
/ref>
The watershed is divided into the following basins:
* Pa Sak Basin
* Sakae Krang Basin
* Greater Nan Basin (composed of the Nan Basin and the Yom Basin, and usually divided as such in drainage analyses)
* Greater Ping Basin (composed of the Ping Basin and the Wang Basin, and usually divided as such in drainage analyses)
* Tha Chin Basin (the basin of the Chao Phraya's most significant distributaries)
*Finally the Chao Phraya Basin itself is defined as the portion of the Chao Phraya watershed drained by the Chao Phraya River itself, and not by its major tributaries or distributaries. As such, the Chao Phraya Basin drains of land.
To the west, the central plain of Thailand is drained by the Mae Klong
The Mae Klong (, , ), sometimes spelled Mae Khlong or Meklong, is a river in western Thailand. The river begins at the confluence of the Khwae Noi (Khwae Sai Yok) and the Khwae Yai River (Khwae Si Sawat) in Kanchanaburi, it passes Ratchaburi ...
and the east by the Bang Pakong River
The Bang Pakong ( th, แม่น้ำบางปะกง, , ) is a river in east Thailand. The river originates at the confluence of the Phra Prong River and the Hanuman River near Kabin Buri, Prachinburi Province. It empties after 231 k ...
. They are not part of the Chao Praya system.
The landscape of the river basins is a very wide, flat, well-watered plain continuously refreshed with soil and sediment brought down by the rivers. The lower central plain from the delta north to Ang Thong Province is a flat, low area with an average of two metres above sea level. Further north and into the plains of the Ping and the Nan the elevation is over 20 m. Then the mountains that are the natural boundary of the Chao Praya watershed form a divide, which has, to some degree, historically isolated Thailand from other Southeast Asian civilisations. In northern Thailand the divide roughly corresponds to a long section of the political border of the country today. Southern portions of the divide's boundary correspond less to the nation's political border, because isolation in this area was prevented by the ease of transportation along the lowlands surrounding the Gulf of Thailand, allowing a unified Thai civilisation to extend beyond the watershed without issue. The slightly higher northern plains have been farmed for centuries and saw a major change from the 13th century during the Sukhothai Kingdom
The Sukhothai Kingdom ( th, สุโขทัย, , IAST: , ) was a post-classical Thai kingdom (mandala) in Mainland Southeast Asia surrounding the ancient capital city of Sukhothai in present-day north-central Thailand. The kingdom was fo ...
in the 13th and 14th centuries and the Ayutthaya Kingdom
The Ayutthaya Kingdom (; th, อยุธยา, , IAST: or , ) was a Siamese kingdom that existed in Southeast Asia from 1351 to 1767, centered around the city of Ayutthaya, in Siam, or present-day Thailand. The Ayutthaya Kingdom is conside ...
that succeeded it when rice growing intensified with the introduction of floating rice
Deepwater rice are varieties of rice (''Oryza sativa'') grown in flooded conditions with water more than deep for at least a month.Catling, p. 2.
More than people in Southeast Asia including Northeastern India rely on deepwater rice for their s ...
, a much faster-growing strain of rice from Bengal
Bengal ( ; bn, বাংলা/বঙ্গ, translit=Bānglā/Bôngô, ) is a geopolitical, cultural and historical region in South Asia, specifically in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal, predom ...
. The southern swamps meanwhile changed radically from the 18th century when King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke
Phra Phutthayotfa Chulalok Maharaj (, 20 March 1737 – 7 September 1809), personal name Thongduang (), also known as Rama I, was the founder of the Rattanakosin Kingdom and the first monarch of the reigning Chakri dynasty of Siam (now Thai ...
moved the capital of Siam to Bangkok, and a process of canalisation and cultivation began, especially as Thailand began to export rice from 1855.
Delta
The Tha Chin River
The Tha Chin river ( th, แม่น้ำท่าจีน, , ) is a distributary of the Chao Phraya river, Thailand. It splits near the province of Chai Nat and then flows west from the Chao Phraya through the central plains, until it empt ...
is the major distributary of the Chao Phraya River. The expanse of the Chao Phraya and Tha Chin
The Tha Chin river ( th, แม่น้ำท่าจีน, , ) is a distributary of the Chao Phraya river, Thailand. It splits near the province of Chai Nat and then flows west from the Chao Phraya through the central plains, until it empt ...
Rivers and their distributaries, starting at the point at which the distributaries diverge, together with the land amid the triangle formed by the outermost and innermost distributary, form the Chao Phraya delta
Delta commonly refers to:
* Delta (letter) (Δ or δ), a letter of the Greek alphabet
* River delta, at a river mouth
* D (NATO phonetic alphabet: "Delta")
* Delta Air Lines, US
* Delta variant of SARS-CoV-2 that causes COVID-19
Delta may also re ...
. The many distributaries of the Chao Phraya delta are interconnected by canals that serve both for irrigation and for transportation.
Ecology
left, Human settlements along the Chao Phraya in Bang Rak, Bangkok
Bangkok, officially known in Thai language, Thai as Krung Thep Maha Nakhon and colloquially as Krung Thep, is the capital and most populous city of Thailand. The city occupies in the Chao Phraya River delta in central Thailand and has an estima ...
The lowland areas of the Chao Phraya watershed in central Thailand have been designated as the Chao Phraya freshwater swamp forests, a tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests ecoregion
An ecoregion (ecological region) or ecozone (ecological zone) is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion, which in turn is smaller than a biogeographic realm. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of l ...
, an area about north to south and wide.
The original swamp forests have almost entirely been removed as the plain has been converted to rice paddies, other agriculture, and urban areas like Bangkok. Much of the wildlife that once inhabited these plains has disappeared, including a large number of fish in the river systems, birds such as vultures, the Oriental darter
The Oriental darter (''Anhinga melanogaster'') is a water bird of tropical South Asia and Southeast Asia. It has a long and slender neck with a straight, pointed bill and, like the cormorant, it hunts for fish while its body is submerged in water ...
(''Anhinga melanogaster''), white-eyed river martin
The white-eyed river martin (''Pseudochelidon sirintarae'') is a passerine bird, one of only two members of the river martin subfamily of the swallows. Since it has significant differences from its closest relative, the African river martin, it ...
(''Pseudochelidon sirintarae''), the sarus crane (''Grus antigone'') and animals such as tiger
The tiger (''Panthera tigris'') is the largest living cat species and a member of the genus '' Panthera''. It is most recognisable for its dark vertical stripes on orange fur with a white underside. An apex predator, it primarily preys on u ...
s, Asian elephant
The Asian elephant (''Elephas maximus''), also known as the Asiatic elephant, is the only living species of the genus ''Elephas'' and is distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, from India in the west, Nepal in the no ...
s, Javan rhinoceros
The Javan rhinoceros (''Rhinoceros sondaicus''), also known as the Javan rhino, Sunda rhinoceros or lesser one-horned rhinoceros, is a very rare member of the family Rhinocerotidae and one of five extant rhinoceroses. It belongs to the same ge ...
es, and the much-hunted Schomburgk's deer
The Schomburgk's deer (''Rucervus schomburgki'') is an extinct species of deer once endemic to central Thailand. It was described by Edward Blyth in 1863 and named after Sir Robert H. Schomburgk, who was the British consul in Bangkok from 1857 t ...
. Today we can only guess at the original habitat and wildlife by comparing it with neighbouring countries. It is believed that the area would have consisted of freshwater swamps inland and salty mangrove
A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows in coastal saline water, saline or brackish water. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse, as a result of convergent evoluti ...
s on the coast and the river estuaries. The swamp would have been covered in ''Phragmites
''Phragmites'' () is a genus of four species of large perennial reed grasses found in wetlands throughout temperate and tropical regions of the world.
Taxonomy
The World Checklist of Selected Plant Families, maintained by Kew Garden in London ...
'' marsh grasses. Today there is a small area of this remaining in Khao Sam Roi Yot National Park Khao may refer to:
* Khao, Iran ( fa, خاو), a village in Kurdistan Province, Iran
* Khao ( th, เขา, pronounced ), the term for 'mountain' in Central and Southern Thailand; see List of mountains in Thailand
* Khao ( th, ข้าว, pronoun ...
, a relic of the original landscape.
As so much has been cleared or altered the potential for creating large protected areas to preserve original habitat no longer exists. However much wildlife does remain in the rice fields and steps may be taken to preserve these as urban and industrial development on the plains is ongoing and the Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand The Industrial Estate Authority of Thailand (I-EA-T), ( th, การนิคมอุตสาหกรรมแห่งประเทศไทย) is a state enterprise under control of the Ministry of Industry of Thailand. It was established b ...
has very little control or planning over this. Particular threats come from the conversion of rice paddies to large-scale production of prawns by pumping in seawater, and the use of pesticides to eliminate the introduced snail,''Pomacea canaliculata
''Pomacea canaliculata'', commonly known as the golden apple snail or the channeled apple snail, is a species of large freshwater snail with gills and an operculum, an aquatic gastropod mollusc in the family Ampullariidae, the apple snails.
S ...
'', which damages rice plants.
There are populations of threatened birds, including colonies of breeding water birds such as the world's largest populations of the near-threatened Asian openbill
The Asian openbill or Asian openbill stork (''Anastomus oscitans'') is a large wading bird in the stork family Ciconiidae. This distinctive stork is found mainly in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. It is greyish or white with glossy ...
(''Anastomus oscitans''), and other birds such as the wintering black kite
The black kite (''Milvus migrans'') is a medium-sized bird of prey in the family Accipitridae, which also includes many other diurnal raptors. It is thought to be the world's most abundant species of Accipitridae, although some populations have ...
(''Milvus migrans''). Endemic mammals that remain are the limestone rat
The limestone rat (''Niviventer hinpoon'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae found only in the limestone karsts of Saraburi, Lopburi, Nakhon Sawan provinces, central Thailand
Thailand ( ), historically known as Siam () a ...
(''Niviventer hinpoon''), Neill's long-tailed giant rat
Neill's long-tailed giant rat (''Leopoldamys neilli'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae.
It is found in Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and possibly Myanmar.
Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical dry shrubland and rocky areas. ...
(''Leopoldamys neilli''), and the near-endemic Thailand roundleaf bat
The Thailand roundleaf bat (''Hipposideros halophyllus'') is a species of bat in the family Hipposideridae. It is endemic to Thailand.
Distribution
''Hipposideros halophyllus'' is found in:
* Khao Samor Khon, Lopburi Province (1,000-1,400 indiv ...
(''Hipposideros halophyllus'').
The Chao Phraya basin is home to about half a dozen endemic dragonflies
A dragonfly is a flying insect belonging to the infraorder Anisoptera below the order Odonata. About 3,000 extant species of true dragonfly are known. Most are tropical, with fewer species in temperate regions. Loss of wetland habitat threa ...
and damselflies
Damselflies are flying insects of the suborder Zygoptera in the order Odonata. They are similar to dragonflies, which constitute the other odonatan suborder, Anisoptera, but are smaller and have slimmer bodies. Most species fold the wings along ...
. The conservation status of most of these in unclear (they are rated as data deficient
A data deficient (DD) species is one which has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as offering insufficient information for a proper assessment of conservation status to be made. This does not necessaril ...
by the IUCN
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...
), but '' Cryptophaea saukra'' is critically endangered and ''Caliphaea angka
''Caliphaea'' is a genus of broad-winged damselflies in the family Calopterygidae
The Calopterygidae are a family of damselflies, in the suborder Zygoptera.
They are commonly known as the broad-winged damselflies, demoiselles, or jewelwings. T ...
'' is endangered
An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching and inva ...
.[Allen, D.J.; Smith, K.G. & Darwall, W.R.T. (editors)(2008). ]
The status and distribution of freshwater fishes of Indo-Burma.
'' IUCN
The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN; officially International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natu ...
. .
There are few areas of wetland protected as national parks, but these are mostly very small.
Fish
The Chao Phraya basin is home to around 280 species of fish, including about 30 endemics
Endemism is the state of a species being found in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found else ...
.[Freshwater Ecoregions of the World (2013). ]
Chao Phraya
.'' Retrieved 7 March 2015. By far the most diverse family is Cyprinidae
Cyprinidae is a family of freshwater fish commonly called the carp or minnow family. It includes the carps, the true minnows, and relatives like the barbs and barbels. Cyprinidae is the largest and most diverse fish family and the largest verte ...
with 108 species.[ The mainstream of the Chao Phraya River has about 190 native fish species.][ In general, the aquatic fauna of Chao Phraya and ]Mae Klong
The Mae Klong (, , ), sometimes spelled Mae Khlong or Meklong, is a river in western Thailand. The river begins at the confluence of the Khwae Noi (Khwae Sai Yok) and the Khwae Yai River (Khwae Si Sawat) in Kanchanaburi, it passes Ratchaburi ...
show clear similarities, and they are sometimes combined in a single ecoregion
An ecoregion (ecological region) or ecozone (ecological zone) is an ecologically and geographically defined area that is smaller than a bioregion, which in turn is smaller than a biogeographic realm. Ecoregions cover relatively large areas of l ...
with 328 fish species.[ Despite their similarities, there are also differences between the aquatic fauna of Chao Phraya and Mae Klong; the latter (but not the former) is home to a few ]taxa
In biology, a taxon (back-formation from ''taxonomy''; plural taxa) is a group of one or more populations of an organism or organisms seen by taxonomists to form a unit. Although neither is required, a taxon is usually known by a particular nam ...
otherwise only known in major Burmese
Burmese may refer to:
* Something of, from, or related to Myanmar, a country in Southeast Asia
* Burmese people
* Burmese language
* Burmese alphabet
* Burmese cuisine
* Burmese culture
Animals
* Burmese cat
* Burmese chicken
* Burmese (hor ...
rivers: the Irrawaddy Irrawaddy may refer to:
*Irrawaddy River, the main river of Burma
*Irrawaddy Delta, a rice growing region of the country
*Ayeyarwady Region, an administrative division of Burma
*''The Irrawaddy'', a Burmese news publication based in Chiang Mai, Tha ...
, Salween
, ''Mae Nam Salawin'' (
, name_etymology =
, image = Sweet_View_of_Salween_River_in_Tang_Yan_Township,_Shan_State,_Myanmar.jpg
, image_size =
, image_caption = Salween River in Shan State, Myanmar
, map ...
, and Tenasserim.[ The aquatic fauna in Chao Phraya–Mae Klong also show clear similarities with that of the middle ]Mekong
The Mekong or Mekong River is a trans-boundary river in East Asia and Southeast Asia. It is the world's List of rivers by length, twelfth longest river and List of longest rivers of Asia, the third longest in Asia. Its estimated length is , ...
(the lower Mekong fauna more closely resembles that of the eastern Malay Peninsula
The Malay Peninsula (Malay: ''Semenanjung Tanah Melayu'') is a peninsula in Mainland Southeast Asia. The landmass runs approximately north–south, and at its terminus, it is the southernmost point of the Asian continental mainland. The area ...
).[ It is believed that the upper Mekong was connected to Chao Phraya (rather than present-day lower Mekong) until the ]Quaternary
The Quaternary ( ) is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). It follows the Neogene Period and spans from 2.58 million years ...
, which explains the similarities in their river faunas. This included the Nan River
The Nan River ( th, แม่น้ำน่าน, , ) is a river in Thailand. It is one of the most important tributaries of the Chao Phraya River.
Geography
The Nan River originates in the Luang Prabang Range, Nan Province. The provinces ...
basin, a tributary of the Chao Phraya, which is home to a number of taxa (for example, ''Ambastaia nigrolineata
''Ambastaia nigrolineata'' is a vulnerable species of loach found in the Mekong basin in Southeast Asia and China. It occurs in clear, fast-flowing riffles and hillstreams with moderate currents and substrates composed primarily of sand. It is k ...
'' and ''Sectoria
''Sectoria'' is a small genus of Nemacheilidae, stone loaches native to eastern Asia.
Species
There are currently two recognized species in this genus:
* ''Sectoria atriceps'' (Hugh McCormick Smith, H. M. Smith, 1945)
* ''Sectoria heterognathos' ...
'') otherwise only known from Mekong.[ Of the fish species known from the Chao Phraya–Mae Klong, only about 50 are absent from the Mekong.][
]
There has been extensive habitat destruction (pollution, dam
A dam is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of surface water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, a ...
s, and drainage
Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of a surface's water and sub-surface water from an area with excess of water. The internal drainage of most agricultural soils is good enough to prevent severe waterlogging (anaerobic conditio ...
for irrigation
Irrigation (also referred to as watering) is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow Crop, crops, Landscape plant, landscape plants, and Lawn, lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,00 ...
) in the Chao Phraya basin and overfishing
Overfishing is the removal of a species of fish (i.e. fishing) from a body of water at a rate greater than that the species can replenish its population naturally (i.e. the overexploitation of the fishery's existing fish stock), resulting in th ...
also presents a problem.[ Within ]mainland Southeast Asia
Mainland Southeast Asia, also known as the Indochinese Peninsula or Indochina, is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of Mainland China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the west an ...
, the only freshwater region with similar high levels of threat is the lower Mekong.[ It has been estimated that only around 30 native fish species still are able to reproduce in the mainstream of the Chao Phraya River.][
The catfish '']Platytropius siamensis
''Platytropius siamensis'' was a species of schilbid catfish ( order Siluriformes) family Schilbeidae. It originated from the Chao Phraya and Bang Pakong Rivers in Thailand. It inhabited lower to middle reaches, mainstreams, tributaries, and larg ...
'' is endemic to Chao Phraya and Bang Pakong, but has not been recorded since the 1970s and is considered extinct
Extinction is the termination of a kind of organism or of a group of kinds (taxon), usually a species. The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of the species, although the capacity to breed and ...
. Recent records of the near-endemic cyprinid '' Balantiocheilos ambusticauda'' are also lacking and it is possibly extinct.[ Three of the largest freshwater fish in the world are native to the river, but these are all seriously threatened: the critically endangered ]giant barb
The giant barb, Siamese giant carp, or simply Siamese carp (''Catlocarpio siamensis'') ( km, ត្រីគល់រាំង, ; th, กระโห้, , , or , , ; Vietnamese: ''cá Hô''), is the largest species of cyprinid in the world. Thes ...
(wild populations have been extirpated
Local extinction, also known as extirpation, refers to a species (or other taxon) of plant or animal that ceases to exist in a chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere. Local extinctions are contrasted with global extinct ...
from Chao Phraya, but remain elsewhere), critically endangered giant pangasius
The giant pangasius, paroon shark, pangasid-catfish or Chao Phraya giant catfish (''Pangasius sanitwongsei'') is a species of freshwater fish in the shark catfish family (Pangasiidae) of order Siluriformes, found in the Chao Phraya and Mekong b ...
, and endangered giant freshwater stingray
The giant freshwater stingray (''Urogymnus polylepis'', also widely known by the junior synonym ''Himantura chaophraya'') is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae. It is found in large rivers and estuaries in Southeast Asia and Borneo, ...
. The critically endangered red-tailed black shark
The red-tailed black shark (''Epalzeorhynchos bicolor''; syn. ''Labeo bicolor''), also known as the redtail shark and redtail sharkminnow, is a species of freshwater fish in the carp family, Cyprinidae. Despite its name, it is more closely rela ...
, a small colourful cyprinid that is endemic to Chao Phraya, is commonly seen in the aquarium trade where it is bred in large numbers, but the only remaining wild population is at a single location that covers less than . The endangered dwarf loach
The dwarf loach, ladderback loach, pygmy loach, chain loach or chain botia, (''Ambastaia sidthimunki'') is a freshwater fish belonging to the family Botiidae. Formerly included in the genus '' Yasuhikotakia'', it is frequently seen in the aquariu ...
, another species bred in large numbers for the aquarium trade, has been extirpated from most of its range in Chao Phraya. The critically endangered Siamese tigerfish
The Siamese tigerfish (''Datnioides pulcher''), also known as the Siamese tiger perch, is a critically endangered Asian fish native to the Chao Phraya, Mae Klong and Mekong basins. It has vertical yellow and black stripes running the length of i ...
has been entirely exirpated from Chao Phraya and Mae Klong, but small populations remain in the Mekong basin.
Many other species that either are prominent in the aquarium trade or important food fish
Food is any substance consumed by an organism for nutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin, and contains essential nutrients, such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingest ...
are native to the Chao Phraya basin, such as the climbing perch, blue panchax
The blue panchax or whitespot (''Aplocheilus panchax'') is a common freshwater fish found in a large variety of habitats due to its high adaptability. This species is native to southern Asia from Pakistan to Indonesia. It has been discovered in t ...
, Asian bumblebee catfish, giant snakehead
''Channa micropeltes'', giant snakehead, giant mudfish or toman harimau, is among the largest species in the family Channidae, capable of growing to in length and a weight of . It is native to the fresh waters of Southeast Asia (South Indian popu ...
, striped snakehead
''Channa striata'', the striped snakehead, is a species of snakehead fish. It is also known as the common snakehead, chevron snakehead, or snakehead murrel and generally referred simply as mudfish. It is native to South and Southeast Asia, and h ...
, walking catfish
The walking catfish (''Clarias batrachus'') is a species of freshwater airbreathing catfish native to Southeast Asia. It is named for its ability to "walk" and wiggle across dry land, to find food or suitable environments. While it does not trul ...
, banded loach, several ''Yasuhikotakia
''Yasuhikotakia'' (Mekong loaches) is a genus of botiid loaches, many which are popular aquarium fish. It is named in honor of Japanese collector/researcher Dr. Yasuhiko Taki. This genus has been separated from the genus ''Botia'' in the paper b ...
'' loaches, tinfoil barb
The tinfoil barb (''Barbonymus schwanenfeldii'') is a tropical Southeast Asian freshwater fish of the family Cyprinidae. This species was originally described as ''Barbus schwanenfeldii'' by Pieter Bleeker in 1853, and has also been placed in th ...
, Siamese algae eater
The Siamese algae-eater (''Crossocheilus oblongus'') is a species of freshwater fish in the carp family, Cyprinidae. This bottom-dwelling tropical fish is found in mainland Southeast Asia, including the Chao Phraya and Mekong basins as well as t ...
, silver barb, pearl danio
The pearl danio (''Danio albolineatus'') is a tropical fish belonging to the minnow family Cyprinidae. Originating in Sumatra, Myanmar, and Thailand, this fish is sometimes found in aquariums by fish-keeping hobbyists. It grows to a maximum len ...
, rainbow shark
The rainbow shark (''Epalzeorhynchos frenatum'') is a species of Southeast Asian freshwater fish from the family Cyprinidae. It is also known as the ruby shark, red-fin shark, red-finned shark, rainbow sharkminnow, green fringelip labeo, whitefi ...
, Hampala barb, black sharkminnow
The black sharkminnow (''Labeo chrysophekadion''), also known as the black shark or black labeo, is a species of freshwater fish in the Cyprinidae, carp family. It is found in the Mekong and Chao Phraya river basins, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Jav ...
, ''Leptobarbus rubripinna
''Leptobarbus rubripinna'', also known as the Sultan barb, is a species of freshwater ray-finned fish from the carp and minnow family, Cyprinidae which occurs in south-east Asia. It is a migratory species which moves from the deltas and estuaries ...
'', long pectoral-fin minnow, bonylip barb, Jullien's golden carp, blackline rasbora
The blackline rasbora (''Rasbora borapetensis'') is a fish of the family Cyprinidae found in Asia in the Mekong, Chao Phraya, and Mae Klong basins, and also the northern Malay Peninsula. In the aquarium trade, it is known by a variety of other na ...
, scissortail rasbora, ''Tor tambroides
''Tor tambroides'', known as empurau in Malay language, Malay, is a species of mahseer native to Southeast Asia.
Taxonomy
It has been suggested that the species represents a junior synonym of ''Tor tambra''. ''T. tambra'', ''T. tambroides'' and ...
'', finescale tigerfish, marble goby
The marble goby (''Oxyeleotris marmorata'') is a widely distributed species of fish in the family Butidae native to fresh and brackish waters of the Mekong and Chao Praya basins, as well as rivers and other water bodies in Cambodia (where it is c ...
, Chinese algae eater
''Gyrinocheilus aymonieri'' is a freshwater fish native to large parts of Southeast Asia. It is of interest as a local food source and for the aquarium trade. Its common names include honey sucker, sucking loach and Chinese algae eater.
''G. ay ...
, giant featherback
''Chitala lopis'', locally known as the belido, is an extinct species of freshwater fish, formerly endemic to the islands of Java and Sumatra in Indonesia
Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and ...
, clown featherback
The clown featherback, clown knifefish, or spotted knifefish, ''Chitala ornata'', is a nocturnal tropical fish with a long, knife-like body. This knifefish is native to freshwater habitats in Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, and Vietnam, but it has ...
, giant gourami
The giant gourami (''Osphronemus goramy'') is a species of large gourami native to freshwater habitats in Southeast Asia. It has also been introduced elsewhere. The species is commercially important as a food fish and is also farmed. It can be fou ...
, several ''Trichopodus
''Trichopodus'' (formerly included in ''Trichogaster'') is a genus of tropical freshwater labyrinth fish of the gourami family found in Southeast Asia. Gouramis of the genus ''Trichopodus'' are closely related to those of ''Trichogaster'' (former ...
'' gouramis, iridescent shark
The iridescent shark, iridescent shark catfish (''Pangasianodon hypophthalmus'') is a species of shark catfish (family Pangasiidae) native to the rivers of Southeast Asia. Despite its name, it is not a shark. It is found in the Mekong basin as we ...
, several ''Pangasius
''Pangasius'' is a genus of medium-large to very large shark catfishes native to fresh water in South and Southeast Asia. The term "pangasius" is sometimes used to specifically refer to the commercially important basa fish, ''P. bocourti''.
Tax ...
'', ''Belodontichthys
''Belodontichthys'' is a genus of sheatfishes native to Asia.
Species
There are currently two recognized species in this genus:
* '' Belodontichthys dinema'' ( Bleeker, 1851)
* '' Belodontichthys truncatus'' Kottelat & Ng, 1999
''B. dinema'' ...
truncatus'', several ''Phalacronotus
''Phalacronotus'' is a genus of Siluridae, sheatfishes native to Asia
Species
There are currently four recognized species in this genus:
*''Phalacronotus apogon'' (Pieter Bleeker, Bleeker, 1851) (Metallic sheatfish)
*''Phalacronotus bleekeri'' ( ...
'' sheatfish, several ''Wallago
''Wallago'' is a genus of catfishes order Siluriformes of the family Siluridae, or sheatfish. They are found in rivers throughout southern and southeastern Asia. The only extant species of this genus is ''Wallago attu''.
Taxonomy
The monophyly o ...
'' catfish, largescale archerfish, smallscale archerfish
The smallscale archerfish (''Toxotes microlepis'') is a perciform fish of genus ''Toxotes''. As its name suggests, the scales of the smallscale archerfish are smaller than those of other archerfish. They reach a maximum length of . Smallscale ar ...
, and wrestling halfbeak
The wrestling halfbeak (''Dermogenys pusilla'') also known as Malayan halfbeak is a species of viviparous halfbeak native to the fresh and brackish waters of rivers and coastal regions in South-East Asia, in Singapore, Thailand, Indonesia, Thaila ...
.
Pollution
The Thai Pollution Control Department (PCD) reports that the water quality of major rivers flowing into the upper Gulf of Thailand has seriously deteriorated in the past decade. The department found the lower Chao Phraya contains bacteria and nutrient pollution
Nutrient pollution, a form of water pollution, refers to contamination by excessive inputs of nutrients. It is a primary cause of eutrophication of surface waters (lakes, rivers and coastal waters), in which excess nutrients, usually nitrogen or ...
from phosphate
In chemistry, a phosphate is an anion, salt, functional group or ester derived from a phosphoric acid. It most commonly means orthophosphate, a derivative of orthophosphoric acid .
The phosphate or orthophosphate ion is derived from phospho ...
s, phosphorus
Phosphorus is a chemical element with the symbol P and atomic number 15. Elemental phosphorus exists in two major forms, white phosphorus and red phosphorus, but because it is highly reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Ear ...
, and nitrogen
Nitrogen is the chemical element with the symbol N and atomic number 7. Nitrogen is a nonmetal and the lightest member of group 15 of the periodic table, often called the pnictogens. It is a common element in the universe, estimated at se ...
. Nutrient pollution causes algae to grow faster than ecosystems can handle, harming water quality, food resources for aquatic animals, and marine habitats. It also decreases the oxygen that fish need to survive. PCD rated water quality at the mouth of Chao Phraya at Bangkok's Bang Khun Thian District
Bang Khun Thian ( th, บางขุนเทียน, ) is one of the 50 districts (''khet'') of Bangkok, Thailand. Its neighbors, clockwise from the north, are Bang Bon, Chom Thong, and Thung Khru Districts of Bangkok, Phra Samut Chedi dist ...
as "very poor", worse than in 2014, and their findings indicated large amounts of wastewater were discharged into the river from households, industry, and agriculture.In addition, 4,000 metric tons of plastic flows down the river into the Gulf of Thailand every year. To counter this, Thailand's Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR) signed an agreement with The Ocean Cleanup
The Ocean Cleanup is a nonprofit environmental engineering organization based in the Netherlands, that develops technology to extract plastic pollution from the oceans and intercept it in rivers before it can reach the ocean. After initial test ...
organization to deploy an Interceptor Original, one of the organization's solar-powered, automated systems, in the river. The system has yet to be deployed as of 2022.
See also
* River Systems of Thailand
Thailand has 22 river basins with 254 sub-basins. Rainwater is one of the most important sources of water. Thailand's water resource per capita is less than that of other countries in the region.
The two principal river systems of Thailand are t ...
* Kapuas River
The Kapuas River (or Kapoeas River) is a river in the Indonesian part of Borneo island, at the geographic center of Maritime Southeast Asia. At in length, it is the longest river in the island of Borneo and the longest river of IndonesiaMacK ...
References
Further reading
* ''Bangkok Waterways'', William Warren and R. Ian Lloyd, Asia Books, .
External links
Video Guide to the Chao Phraya River
Chao Phraya River Express
UNESCO World Water Assessment Program on the Chao Phraya
Bangkok Chao Phraya River Boat Trip
a self-guided boat trip on Bangkok's Chao Phraya river.
{{Authority control
Rivers of Thailand
Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
Ecoregions of Asia