Cephalopods A cephalopod is any member of the molluscan class Cephalopoda (Greek plural , ; "head-feet") such as a squid, octopus, cuttlefish, or nautilus. These exclusively marine animals are characterized by bilateral body symmetry, a prominent head, an ...

, as active marine predators, possess sensory organs specialized for use in aquatic conditions.Budelmann BU. "Cephalopod sense organs, nerves and the brain: Adaptations for high performance and life style." Marine and Freshwater Behavior and Physiology. Vol 25, Issue 1-3, Page 13-33. They have a camera-type eye which consists of an iris, a circular lens, vitreous cavity (eye gel), pigment cells, and photoreceptor cells that translate light from the light-sensitive

retina The retina (from la, rete "net") is the innermost, light-sensitive layer of tissue of the eye of most vertebrates and some molluscs. The optics of the eye create a focused two-dimensional image of the visual world on the retina, which then ...

into nerve signals which travel along the optic nerve to the brain. For the past 140 years, the camera-type cephalopod eye has been compared with the vertebrate eye as an example of

convergent evolution Convergent evolution is the independent evolution of similar features in species of different periods or epochs in time. Convergent evolution creates analogous structures that have similar form or function but were not present in the last com ...

, where both types of organisms have independently evolved the camera-eye trait and both share similar functionality. Contention exists on whether this is truly convergent evolution or

parallel evolution Parallel evolution is the similar development of a trait in distinct species that are not closely related, but share a similar original trait in response to similar evolutionary pressure.Zhang, J. and Kumar, S. 1997Detection of convergent and paral ...

. Unlike the

vertebrate Vertebrates () comprise all animal taxa within the subphylum Vertebrata () ( chordates with backbones), including all mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish. Vertebrates represent the overwhelming majority of the phylum Chordata, ...

camera eye, the cephalopods' form as

invagination Invagination is the process of a surface folding in on itself to form a cavity, pouch or tube. In developmental biology, invagination is a mechanism that takes place during gastrulation. This mechanism or cell movement happens mostly in the vegetal ...

s of the body surface (rather than outgrowths of the brain), and consequently the

cornea The cornea is the transparent front part of the eye that covers the iris, pupil, and anterior chamber. Along with the anterior chamber and lens, the cornea refracts light, accounting for approximately two-thirds of the eye's total optical power ...

lies over the top of the eye as opposed to being a structural part of the eye. Unlike the vertebrate eye, a cephalopod eye is focused through movement, much like the lens of a camera or telescope, rather than changing shape as the lens in the human eye does. The eye is approximately spherical, as is the

lens A lens is a transmissive optical device which focuses or disperses a light beam by means of refraction. A simple lens consists of a single piece of transparent material, while a compound lens consists of several simple lenses (''elements''), ...

, which is fully internal. Cephalopods' eyes develop in such a way that they have retinal axons that pass over the back of the retina, so the optic nerve does not have to pass through the photoreceptor layer to exit the eye and do not have the natural, central, physiological blind spot of vertebrates. The crystalins used in the lens appear to have developed independently from vertebrate crystalins, suggesting a

homoplasious Convergent evolution is the independent evolution of similar features in species of different periods or epochs in time. Convergent evolution creates analogous structures that have similar form or function but were not present in the last com ...

origin of the lens. Most cephalopods possess complex extraocular muscle systems that allow for very fine control over the gross positioning of the eyes. Octopuses possess an autonomic response that maintains the orientation of their pupils such that they are always horizontal.

Polarized light

Several types of cephalopods, most notably squid and octopuses, and potentially cuttlefish, have eyes that can distinguish the orientation of

polarized light Polarization (also polarisation) is a property applying to transverse waves that specifies the geometrical orientation of the oscillations. In a transverse wave, the direction of the oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of motion of the ...

. This sensitivity is due to the

orthogonal In mathematics, orthogonality is the generalization of the geometric notion of ''perpendicularity''. By extension, orthogonality is also used to refer to the separation of specific features of a system. The term also has specialized meanings in ...

organization of neighboring photoreceptors. (Cephalopods have receptor cells called

rhabdom The compound eyes of arthropods like insects, crustaceans and millipedes are composed of units called ommatidia (singular: ommatidium). An ommatidium contains a cluster of photoreceptor cells surrounded by support cells and pigment cells. The ou ...

s similar to those of other molluscs.) In contrast, the vertebrate eye is normally insensitive to polarization differences because the

opsin Animal opsins are G-protein-coupled receptors and a group of proteins made light-sensitive via a chromophore, typically retinal. When bound to retinal, opsins become Retinylidene proteins, but are usually still called opsins regardless. Most pro ...

s in rods and

cones A cone is a three-dimensional geometric shape that tapers smoothly from a flat base (frequently, though not necessarily, circular) to a point called the apex or vertex. A cone is formed by a set of line segments, half-lines, or lines conn ...

are arrayed semi-randomly. And thus, the eye is equally sensitive to any orientation of the e-vector axis of the light. Because of their orthogonal organization, the opsins in cephalopod eyes have the highest light absorption when aligned properly with the light e-vector axis, allowing sensitivity to differences in polarization. The precise function of this ability has not been proven, but is hypothesized to be for prey detection, navigation, and possibly communication among the color-changing cephalopods. File:Eye squid.jpg, Eye of ''

Bathyteuthis ''Bathyteuthis'' is the singular genus of squid in the family Bathyteuthidae, encompassing three species. ''Bathyteuthis'' species are found scattered throughout the world’s oceans at mesopelagic to bathypelagic depths, commonly between 700 ...

'' sp. File:Octopusv cropped.JPG, Octopus (''

Octopus vulgaris The common octopus (''Octopus vulgaris'') is a mollusc belonging to the class Cephalopoda. ''Octopus vulgaris'' is one of the most studied of all octopus species, and also one of the most intelligent. It ranges from the eastern Atlantic, extends ...

'') eye File:Squid eye.jpg,

Squid True squid are molluscs with an elongated soft body, large eyes, eight arms, and two tentacles in the superorder Decapodiformes, though many other molluscs within the broader Neocoleoidea are also called squid despite not strictly fitting t ...

eye File:Cuttlefish eye closeup.JPG,

Cuttlefish Cuttlefish or cuttles are marine molluscs of the order Sepiida. They belong to the class Cephalopoda which also includes squid, octopuses, and nautiluses. Cuttlefish have a unique internal shell, the cuttlebone, which is used for control of ...

eye File:Nautilus pompilius (head).jpg, Nautilus (''

Nautilus pompilius The chambered nautilus (''Nautilus pompilius''), also called the pearly nautilus, is the best-known species of nautilus. The shell, when cut away, reveals a lining of lustrous nacre and displays a nearly perfect equiangular spiral, although it ...

'') eye

Evolutionary debate

Disagreement on whether the evolution of the camera eye within cephalopods and within vertebrates is a

or a

still exists, although is mostly resolved. The current standing is that of a convergent evolution for their analogous camera-type eye.

Parallel evolution

Those maintaining that it is a parallel evolution state that there is evidence that there was a common ancestor containing the genetic information for this eye development. This is evidenced by all bilaterian organisms containing the gene ''

Pax6 Paired box protein Pax-6, also known as aniridia type II protein (AN2) or oculorhombin, is a protein that in humans is encoded by the ''PAX6'' gene. Function PAX6 is a member of the Pax gene family which is responsible for carrying the geneti ...

'' which expresses for eye development.

Convergent evolution

Those supporting a convergent evolution state that this common ancestor would have preceded both cephalopods and vertebrates by a significant margin. The common ancestor with the expression for camera-type eye would have existed approximately 270 million years before the evolution of camera-type eye in cephalopods and approximately 110 to 260 million years before the evolution of camera-type eye in vertebrates. Another source of evidence for this is the differences of expression due to independent variants of ''Pax6'' arising in both cephalopods and vertebrates. Cephalopods contain five variants of ''Pax6'' in their genomes which independently arose and are not shared by vertebrates, although they allow for a similar gene expression when compared to the ''Pax6'' of vertebrates.

Research and medical use

The main medical use emerging in this field is for research on

eye development Eye formation in the human embryo begins at approximately three weeks into embryonic development and continues through the tenth week.Ort, D., David, H."Development of the Eye" Retrieved 22 April 2015. Cells from both the mesodermal and the ect ...

and ocular diseases. New research studies on ocular

gene expression Gene expression is the process by which information from a gene is used in the synthesis of a functional gene product that enables it to produce end products, protein or non-coding RNA, and ultimately affect a phenotype, as the final effect. The ...

are being performed using cephalopod eyes due to the evidence of their

with the analogous human eye. These studies replace the previous ''

Drosophila ''Drosophila'' () is a genus of flies, belonging to the family Drosophilidae, whose members are often called "small fruit flies" or (less frequently) pomace flies, vinegar flies, or wine flies, a reference to the characteristic of many species ...

'' studies for gene expression during eye development as the most accurate, although ''Drosophila'' studies remain the most common. The conclusion that they are analogous lends credibility to their comparison for medical use in the first place, since the trait in both would have been shaped through

natural selection Natural selection is the differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in the heritable traits characteristic of a population over generations. Charle ...

by similar pressures in similar environments; meaning there would be similar expression of ocular disease in both organisms’ eyes. An advantage of cephalopod eye experimentation is that cephalopods can regenerate their eyes due to their ability to re-enable their developmental processes, which allows studies of the same cephalopod to continue past one trial sample when studying the effects of disease. This also permits for a more complex study concerning how regeneration may be conserved in cephalopod genomes and if it may be somewhat conserved in the human genome alongside the genes expressing for the camera eye.

References