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Ancient Roman
In modern historiography, ancient Rome refers to Roman civilisation from the founding of the city of Rome in the 8th century BC to the collapse of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century AD. It encompasses the Roman Kingdom (753–509 BC ...
culture, ''cena'' or ''coena'' was the main meal of the day. The grammarian, Sextus Pompeius Festus, preserved in his ''De verborum significatione
''De verborum significatione libri XX'' ('Twenty Books on the Meaning of Words'), also known as the ''Lexicon of Festus'', is an epitome compiled, edited, and annotated by Sextus Pompeius Festus from the encyclopedic works of Verrius Flaccus. Fes ...
'' that in earlier times, ''cena'' was held midday but later began to be held in evenings, with ''prandium'' replacing the noon meal. ''Cena'' would occur after work was completed for the day and was a focal point of social life, along with the public baths, the frequenting of which often preceded the meal. Seating during dinner was in the triclinium, three couches for reclining arranged as three sides of a square, with a small table for food in the middle of all these, although masonry dining areas have been found in Pompeian gardens for out of doors dining during warmer weather. Whether inside or out, the couches would have been cushioned by mattresses and pillows while the diners reclined on their elbows. Ancient Romans believed that having more than one meal per day was unhealthy.
While most often ''cena'' would be a simple affair, for wealthier Romans on special occasions it could be an elaborate banquet as described by Martial
Marcus Valerius Martialis (known in English as Martial ; March, between 38 and 41 AD – between 102 and 104 AD) was a Roman poet from Hispania (modern Spain) best known for his twelve books of ''Epigrams'', published in Rome between AD 86 and ...
, Pliny, and Petronius
Gaius Petronius Arbiter"Gaius Petronius Arbiter"
During these ''cenae'', the host could show off their wealth and impress their guests, although some were prone to creating class distinctions between guests. Some of the surviving descriptions are prone to exaggeration such as the banquets of the emperor's written about in the Lives of the Twelve Caesars and the Lives of the Later Caesars. The 3rd century C.E. author,
The ''cena'' traditionally consisted of three parts. The appetizer course (''gustatio'') often included eggs, olives, and honeyed wine, but could include clams and snails as found in nearby refuse piles by some outdoor Pomepian Triclina. Other dishes included in the ''gustatio'' would come from the hosts garden such as lettuce, leeks, mallows, mint, and arugula or from the coast such as tuna or anchovies The second, main course often included the main meat dish, like a roasted pig, or for variety sheep or goats alongside vegetables like beans or cabbage. Although throughout the Roman world, pork was the preferred meat dish in various forms, although commonly sausage and blood pudding. The third and final course included desserts such as fruits or nuts. All the courses would be served with wine and bread Only the very wealthy would consume exotic dishes such as giraffes, ostrich, lions, and peacocks. Some of the dishes would be elaborately sauced and dressed, with many enslaved cooks drawing inspiration from M. Gavius 
The courses of the more elaborate ''cena'' would have been served on silverware, as evidenced by the hoards found at Boscoreale and the
During these ''cenae'', the host could show off their wealth and impress their guests, although some were prone to creating class distinctions between guests. Some of the surviving descriptions are prone to exaggeration such as the banquets of the emperor's written about in the Lives of the Twelve Caesars and the Lives of the Later Caesars. The 3rd century C.E. author,
Athenaeus
Athenaeus of Naucratis (; grc, Ἀθήναιος ὁ Nαυκρατίτης or Nαυκράτιος, ''Athēnaios Naukratitēs'' or ''Naukratios''; la, Athenaeus Naucratita) was a Greek rhetorician and grammarian, flourishing about the end of th ...
organizes his book Deipnosophists as a series conversations around the order of a dinner party and the meals served.
The ''cena'' traditionally consisted of three parts. The appetizer course (''gustatio'') often included eggs, olives, and honeyed wine, but could include clams and snails as found in nearby refuse piles by some outdoor Pomepian Triclina. Other dishes included in the ''gustatio'' would come from the hosts garden such as lettuce, leeks, mallows, mint, and arugula or from the coast such as tuna or anchovies The second, main course often included the main meat dish, like a roasted pig, or for variety sheep or goats alongside vegetables like beans or cabbage. Although throughout the Roman world, pork was the preferred meat dish in various forms, although commonly sausage and blood pudding. The third and final course included desserts such as fruits or nuts. All the courses would be served with wine and bread Only the very wealthy would consume exotic dishes such as giraffes, ostrich, lions, and peacocks. Some of the dishes would be elaborately sauced and dressed, with many enslaved cooks drawing inspiration from M. Gavius Apicius
''Apicius'', also known as ''De re culinaria'' or ''De re coquinaria'' (''On the Subject of Cooking'') is a collection of Roman cookery recipes. It is thought to have been compiled in the fifth century AD. Its language is in many ways closer ...
, a famous chef from the early imperial period. Many of these enslaved cooks would also be skilled at disguising dishes as things they are not adding to the pageantry of the more elaborate of these events which could include musicians, singers, acrobats, poets, and dancers in addition to the displays of food service. Many, but not all of the entertainers were enslaved persons. Some meals would be a time for storytelling and philosophical discussions between the guests, often being a time for them to hear news from around the empire.
The courses of the more elaborate ''cena'' would have been served on silverware, as evidenced by the hoards found at Boscoreale and the House of Menander
The House of Menander (Italian: Casa del Menandro) is one of the richest and most magnificent houses in ancient Pompeii in terms of architecture, decoration and contents, and covers a large area of about occupying most of its '' insula''. Its ...
, or if that was unaffordable then bronze or glass. The ''cena'' of a farmer would be served on simple wood or terracotta dishes.
See also
* Cuisine of ancient Rome *Food and dining in the Roman Empire
Food and dining in the Roman Empire reflect both the variety of food-stuffs available through the expanded trade networks of the Roman Empire and the traditions of conviviality from ancient Rome's earliest times, inherited in part from the Greeks ...
* Ancient Rome and wine
References
{{Ancient Rome topics Culture of ancient Rome Meals